Vedic Sacrifice, a brief introduction

Sacrifice forms the foremost element in the Vedic culture. Almost the whole of Vedic literature revolves around sacrifice. It is so dominant that one cannot think of the Veda without sacrifice. A sacrifice in very simple terms is the offering of an object through the medium of fire.

Kalpa Sutras, Manual for Vedic sacrifices

Ancient sages such as Ashvalayana, Shankhayana, Drahyayana, Bodhayana, Apastamba, Bharadvaja and others composed many Kalpa Sutras with a view to give a complete and comprehensive method for the performance of Vedic sacrifices as described in the different Vedic shakas (branches). The Kalpa Sutras are considered to be one of the six auxiliaries of the Vedas because without their help it is difficult to understand or perform the numerous rituals prescribed in the different Vedic shakas.

The Kalpa Sutras contain Shrauta Sutras, Grhya Sutras, Dharma Sutras and Shulva Sutras. The Shrauta Sutras describe the great sacrifices while the Grhya Sutras deal with domestic sacrifices such as marriage and Upanayana. The Dharma Sutas deal with social usage and customary law and the Shulva Sutras contain rules for the measurement and construction of fire altars and sacrificial sheds, etc.

Though Shrauta Sutras and Grhya Sutras deal with sacrifices there is a difference between them. The Shrauta Sutras describe the big sacrifices which should be generally performed with the help of three or more sacred fires, while the Grhya Sutras deal with simple domestic ceremonies of daily life which may be performed with the single Grhya fire. The Shrauta rites require the services of a number of priests – as many as sixteen, whereas Grhya rites can be performed by the householder himself. The offering of Soma which figures prominently in Shrauta sacrifices is absolutely unconnected with the Grhya rites.

The Kalpa Sutras are indebted to the Brahmanas which are the commentaries of the Vedas. The Brahmanas interpret the Vedic Samhitas (Mantras) with a ritualistic outlook. But there is a fundamental difference between the Brahmanas and the Kalpa Sutras in regard to their aim and scope. The principle aim of the Brahmanas is to explain the significance of various acts in Vedic sacrifices and to settle ritualistic doctrines, while the Kalpa Sutras are chiefly concerned with giving a succinct and systematic account of the Vedic sacrifices and customs prevalent at the time of their composition. The Kalpa Sutra simply record the ritual and traditions currently in their respective schools and do not concern themselves with their explanation and rationale.

The Kalpa Sutras are attached to different shakas of each Veda and each of them regulates the systematic performance of the rituals for the followers of that particular branch of the Veda. For instance the Ashvalayaniya and Shankhayaniya Shautra Sutra belongs to the Rigvedic shakas; the Mashaka, Latyayaniya, Drahyayaniya to shakas belonging to Samaveda; Vaitanasutra and Kaushikasutra to Atharvaveda, Katyayaniya to Shukla Yajurveda and Apastambiya, Baudhayaniya, Bharadvajiya, Vadhula, Hiranyakeshiya, Vaikhanasa to Krishna Yajurveda.

Origin of Vedic sacrifice

It was from the earliest stage of the kindling of fire that the sacrifice seems to have originated. Agni being first kindled by the priestly families of Atharvan and Angiras who are also credited with the origination of the sacrifice. Rigvedic sacrifice originated with the idea of propitiating the divinities through Agni with the help of the hymns and the offerings so that the progress of the individual as well as the group should become possible. Sacrifice during the first stage was characterized by the worship of the individual divinities with the help of the fire kindled in the household and the hymns composed to propitiate the divinity concerned. The work of composing the hymn and officiating at the sacrifice was apparently done by the same person who came to be referred to as Jaritr, Karu, Vipra in his former capacity and Hotr in the latter one. The earliest offerings were ghrita (ghee) and payas (rice cooked in milk) and later Soma. The process of offering an object into the fire is called Homa and the object of offering is called Havis.

Purpose of Vedic sacrifices

Vedic sacrifices or rites in general whether Shrauta or Grhya are performed with an aim to gain some positive results and fruits. The purpose of Vedic ritual was the gratification of the gods for obtaining the benefits of offspring, increase in cattle wealth, a long life, supremacy and also for warding off the evil effects.

Rituals overshadow worship of divinities

The hymns of the Rigveda are not known to be essentially sacrificial in their origin. In fact, it is generally believed that a large number of hymns cannot be considered to have anything to do with the sacrifice. But during the Brahmana period sacrifices became elaborate, mechanical and began to acquire a rigid character. Metaphorically speaking it can be said that in the days of Rigveda the mantras and sacrifice were the two horses drawing the chariot of the propitiation of the divinities while in the days of Brahmanas the performance of sacrificial rite became the chariot to be drawn by the hymns and the divinities.

When the Vedic ritual developed further the priests felt the need of a collection of verses and formulas to be recited at the performance of sacrifices; and this necessity led to the compilation of certain Rigvedic verses and ritualistic formulas in the form of Yajur Veda. The formulas called Yajus were obviously a priestly creation. The Rigvedic verses borrowed by Yajur Veda for sacrificial purposes were in many cases without any relevance to the ritual. Even the mantras of the Rigveda employed at the Grhya sacrifices (domestic ceremonies) have no bearing on the ceremonies.

Synonyms of Yajna

The term widely used for sacrifice is Yajna. The other terms generally used are Yaga, Kratu, Adhvara and Makha. Though these terms are usually employed as synonyms, sometimes a special meaning is attached to them. Yajna is said to be that type of sacrifice in which there is no Yupa (sacrificial post). Yaga and Kratu are applied to that type in which Yupa is prescribed. Adhvara and Makha are terms which denote mostly the bigger sacrifices.

Types of Yajnas

Vedic sacrifices were of two types, Shrauta Yajnas and Smarta Yajnas. The former is based on the Shrauta Sutras and the latter is based on the Grhya Sutras. On the basis of offerings, Shrauta sacrifices are classified into Pakayajnas wherein cooked offerings are made, Haviryajnas, wherein the offering includes animals and Somayajnas wherein the Soma juice and other offerings are made. The sacrifices are also classified on the basis of the period of performance like Ekaha or a single day sacrifice, Ahina or sacrifice performed for several days and Sattra which is a sacrificial session whose duration varies from twelve days to a year or more. Yet another division of sacrifices are Nitya, Kamya and Naimithika. Nitya sacrifices are obligatory while Naimithika sacrifices are done occasionally like birth of a son, performance of sacred thread ceremony, marriage, Shraddha, etc. Both these sacrifices have to be done by the dvijas (twice-born) because of the scriptural injunction and are performed without any consideration of reward. On the other hand Kamya sacrifices are done with an intention of securing certain rewards like Svarga Loka.

Different kinds of priests

The Vedic sacrifices required a number of priests who did different things during the sacrifice. The Hotr, apparently the oldest of the priests, used to invoke the gods by reciting the Rigvedic hymns. The Adhvaryu did the actual sacrificial performance while the Udgatar chanted the samans musically. Verses from the Rigveda and Samaveda were recited loudly while the hymns from the Yajurveda were muttered in a low voice. A priest known as Brahman used to supervise the whole ritual. Other priests who took part in the sacrificial ceremonies were Purohita, Potr, Prashastr, Upavaktr, Agnidh and others.

Important Vedic sacrifices

The important sacrifices coming under Haviryajnas are Darsapurnamasa, Pindapitrayajna, Agnyadhana, Agnihotra, Caturmasya, Sautramani and Nirudhapashubandha. Sacrifices grouped under Somayajnas are Agnistoma (Jyotistoma), Atyagnistoma, Ukthya, Sodasin, Vajapeya, Atiratra and Aptoryama. Other important Vedic sacrifices include Rajasuya, Ashvamedha, Purushamedha and Sarvamedha.

Animal sacrifice in Yajnas

Anthropologists had long agreed that behind the various sacrificial practices of the ancient world stands the primitive human sacrifice and Vedic sacrifice was not exceptional to this practice in the beginning. According to Aitareya Brahmana, the gods first slew the man (Purusha) as the victim. But when he had been slain, the sacrificial essence in him went to the horse. Then from the horse it went to the ox and from it to the sheep and then to the goat. Then it entered into the earth and through the earth it entered into the rice of which the sacrificial cake is made. Thus the sacrificial cake (Purodasha) contains the sacrificial essence. According to G.U.Thite the animal sacrifice in the first stage was a human being and then successively of other animals and finally of the sacrificial cake which represented the animal.

The story of Shunahshepa mentioned in the Aitareya Brahmana shows that human sacrifice existed during the Vedic period. The Vajasaneyi Samhita of the Shukla Yajur Veda and Shatapata Brahmana refers to the Purushamedha wherein human beings were sacrificed. This rite was celebrated for the attainment of supremacy over all created beings. This rite was performed for 40 days (though five days were called the days of Purushamedha) and eleven sacrificial posts were placed and to each was tied an animal (a barren cow) fit of Agni and Soma. The human victims were placed between the posts. As the actual process of killing was rather troublesome to some of the sensitive minds among the ritualists, we are told in connection with the Purushamedha that those Purushas who are bound to the sacrificial post are to be set free after some ritual actions had been finished.

According to K.R.Potdar, animal sacrifice came to be introduced after the Pitryajna had come into existence. The number of animal sacrifices in Vedic yajnas is calculated to be 29 to 30. Among the seven Haviryajnas, Nirudhapashubandha is an animal sacrifice performed every six months or once in a year. This sacrifice required the services of six priests and a goat was sacrificed. In another sacrifice, Sautramani animals like goat, sheep and a bull were sacrificed for deities like Ashwini, Saraswathi and Indra respectively.

The animal sacrifice is a part of Soma sacrifice and is performed on the day of the Soma pressing and offering. The three animal sacrifices associated with the Soma sacrifice are Agnisomiya, Kratupashu and Anubandhya. While in Agnisomiya a goat is sacrificed, in Anubandhya a cow is immolated. In Ashwamedha sacrifice a horse was sacrificed through immolation. In animal sacrifice the offering of the Vapa (omentum) is very important. It was believed that the animal offered in a sacrifice went to heaven.

Though many scholars argue that animals were not sacrificed in Vedic Yajnas, among the fifty five practices prohibited in the Kali age (Kalivarjyas), include human sacrifice (Purushamedha), horse sacrifice (Ashwamedha), cow sacrifice (Gosava and Gomedha in Yajnas) and slaughtering of cow in honour of guests, pitrs and bridegroom. If these sacrifices had not existed during the Vedic period, the Puranas would not have issued injunctions against these practices in the Kali age. It is said that Madhvacharya (1238-1317 A.D.) felt disgusted with the slaughter of animals in Vedic sacrifices and totally dispensed with living animals as sacrificial victims and replaced it with animal-form, made of rice flour. According to B.N.K.Sharma, the new type of Vedic sacrifices with floor-made animals (Pista Pashu Yajnas) instead of living animals, introduced by Madhvacharya in all probability was partly due to the moral pressure and influence of Jain ideas. This shows that animal sacrifice existed even during 13^th century A.D.

Strange and obscene ceremonies

The Vedic sacrifice Gosava is described in the Tandya-Mahabrahmana, Jaiminiya Brahmana and Taittriya Brahmana. In this sacrifice, the sacrificer has to behave like a cow/bull for one year and as a part of this behaviour he has to unite with his mother, sister and any woman of his own gotra (family). All these things appear to be a part of animalism which is a primitive way of thought. Similarly in the Ashvamedha sacrifice some obscene rituals are prescribed to be performed. For instance, Shatapata Brahmana mentions the ritual of an sexual intercourse between the dead sacrificial horse and the chief queen and also an obscene dialogue between the priests and the queens of the sacrificer. Another ritual performed on the Mahavrata day in the Sattra sacrificial session is the sexual union between a man and a woman, both strangers. According to G.U.Thite, the above mentioned queer and obscene rituals are impossible to be performed by the civilized people and it is doubtful whether these rituals were actually performed. In the view of G.U.Thite while studying the Vedic texts dealing with the Vedic rituals we have to be very cautious in accepting any ritual to be a reality. Just in the case of Puranas, in the case of ritual texts also we have to assume that there were some over enthusiastic authors who were interested in making exaggerations and writing fictitious things. Hence it will be too simplistic to take for granted everything mentioned in the Vedic texts to be realistic or historical.

Opposition to Vedic sacrifices

Even during the early days of the Rigvedic period there was opposition to sacrificial performances. The Panis and the Dasyus were prominent among those who opposed sacrifices. R.N.Dandekar opines that the followers of the Vratya cult, the Brahmacarin cult and the Muni cult (with which Rudra was closely associated) had no faith in the efficacy of the Vedic rituals. According to R.C.Hazra, Rudra was antagonistic to Vedic sacrifices and destroyed it even in the absence of the least provocation from the sacrificers. In order to advance this sinister work of his, Rudra took more care to kill those men of wealth among the Vedic people who encouraged and financed the performance of these generally expensive religious rites. The Ramayana gives accounts of the hostility between the offerers of sacrifices and the Rakshasas who were opposed to the performance of sacrifices. It is interesting to note that the Vedic hymnists invoked Agni to dispel the depredation of the Rakshasas and to destroy them. The Rakshasas were opposed to the efficacy of fire because wild forest fires affect the forest dwelling of the Rakshasas and deprive them of natural goods such as fruits and roots and also scare away animals. The Carvakas vehemently criticized the Vedic rituals and animal sacrifices and called them as meaningless. The priests say that the animals sacrificed in the yajna attain heaven. If so, why did they not send their own parents to heaven by sacrificing them in the yajnas, they questioned? Eminent scholars like M.Hiriyanna, S.Radhakrishnan, R.K.Mookerji, R.D.Ranade and others opine that the Upanishads were opposed to sacrifices. To give a few instances, the Munduka Upanishad (I.2.7) condemns Yajna as leaky vessels. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (3.8.10) says that performing sacrifices, giving charities and doing austerities for years together is of no use without the knowledge of the Brahman. Similarly Bhagavatism placed devotion to God a higher place than performance of sacrifices. For instance in Bhagavata Purana (3:32:2-7) Kapila says that while a person engaged in pravritti dharma, that is worshipping gods and forefathers with sacrificial ceremonies will be born again and again; whereas one who is engaged in nivritti dharma, that is worshipping Hari with devotion and surrendering all his action to Him will merge with the Universal Consciousness. At a later stage we find both Buddhism and Jainism opposing the Vedic sacrifices and its rituals. Basaveshwara the founder of Lingayat sect was also opposed to Yajnas and offering of animals in oblation.

Different interpretation of Yajna

Yajna is derived according to lexicographers from the root ‘Yaj’. Yaj is defined as ‘deva puja’ or its equivalent ‘worship of the deity’. Hence according to M.Yamunacharya worship in the philosophy of Yajna involves offering oneself to the service of the Highest in him, in a spirit of dedication. The Chandogya Upanishad interprets the Yajna in terms of righteousness rather than in terms of ritual. Accordingly Yajna (sacrifice) is obtaining the world of Brahman by means of abstinence (brahmacharya). According to Sahebrao.G.Nigal, Yajna, far from being ritualistic, have social and spiritual significance. The so-called killing in sacrifice is to be understood symbolically. Here Manyu (wrath) is said to be Pashu (animal) to be sacrificed at the altar of fire. Thus the killing of Pashus clearly means the killing of the animal in man. Yajniyavritti is nothing but the spirit of sacrifice or the spirit of dedication in doing great and noble deeds. In Bhagavad Gita, Yajna means the observance of the niyata karma without attachment, without desire for the result and without the feeling that this is done by me and I. Bhagavad Gita refers to several types of Yajnas like Tapoyajna, Yogayajna and Jnanayajna and considers Jnanayajna as superior to dravyayajna which consists of throwing oblations into the fire. According to Vishnu Prasad Bhatt, Upanishads also have their own concept of sacrifice which is meditation upon the Brahman by which one can get perpetual bliss and accordingly can get rid of the cycles of rebirth. While the performance of Brahmanical sacrifices is very much tedious, complicated and mechanical, the Upanishad sacrifices are very simple and are performed within the heart, that is to say here, one is more concerned with the purity of heart than with the vidhis (methods) which are essentially to be found in the sacrifices of the Brahmanas. It is said that the Bhagavata Purana had prophesied that the Kali age is not the age for the sacrifices of the Vedic type and a new type of sacrifice will come into being and that will be in the form of singing in praise of God. Hence in 16^th century A.D., Sri Chaitanya came with a new type of Yajna, the Nama-Yajna that is the congregational singing of the name of the Lord

Vedic sacrifices become redundant and fades into oblivion

According to P.V.Kane even in earlier times it appears that most Brahmins could not perform the daily Agnihotra due to their poor economic conditions. The daily Agnihotra required the maintenance of at least two cows, besides thousands of cow-dung cakes and fuel sticks. Hence sacrifices like Agnihotra, Darshapurnamasa (in which four priests were employed) and the Caturmasyas (where five priests were required), the householder was required to be well-to-do. And Soma sacrifices could be performed only by kings, nobles and the rich. Even sacrifices like Ashwamedha must have been rare though we learn from inscriptions and literary traditions that kings like Pushyamitra Sunga and Samudragupta performed the Ashwamedha and king Kharavela, the Rajasuya sacrifice. The Atharvaveda (xi.7.7-8) regards the Rajasuya, Vajapeya, Ashwamedha, the Sattras and several other sacrifices as utsanna (gone out of vogue). During the centuries of Muslim domination no help from royalty could be expected and so the institution of Vedic sacrifices languished. As even the basic Srauta rite, Agnihotra had practically gone out of general practice and was not relevant to religious life in those times, the Kalivarjya prohibits the performance of certain Srauta and Grhya rites including the Agnihotra. Over a period of time temple worship took the place of Srauta and Smarta practices and certain rituals imitating the character of Srauta rites were incorporated in ceremonies like Chandihoma, Vishnuyaga and worship of Rudra, wherein tantric elements are also present.

Reference

1. B.S.Mehra – The Science of Sacrifice, Vedic Studies (Problems and Perspectives), Editors – B.K.Dalai & R.A.Muley, Pratibha Prakashan, Delhi, 2014
2. Rajendralala Mitra – Indo-Aryans, 1881
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7. R.C.Hazra Commemoration Volume, part I, All India Kashiraj Trust, Varanasi,
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9. Ram Gopal – India of Vedic Kalpasutras, National Publishing House, Delhi, 1959
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15. D.K.Bedekar – Primitive Society and Yajna, ABORI, vol – 31, No 1/4, 1950
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19. Shashi Bhusan Dasgupta – Aspects of Indian Religious Thought, Calcutta, 1957
20. Batuknath Bhattacharya – Kalivarjyas or Prohibition in the Kali Age, University of Calcutta, 1943
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Yoga: A Brief Summary

The term yoga can be applied to any systematic effort made by man to alleviate his spiritual thirst by the use of suitable psychosomatic exercises out of the vast inventory of methods mentioned in yoga texts and other religious documents. According to Georg Feuerstein, yoga is the generic name for the various Indian paths of ecstatic self-transcendence, or the methodical modification of consciousness to the point of liberation from the spell of the ego-personality. It is a psychospiritual technology specific to India.

The Genesis and Antiquity of Yoga

The Vedic literature bears witness to the existence of two classes of non-Brahmin magician priests in the Vedic and proto historic periods, respectively called the Vratyas and the Yatis. In classical Sanskrit, Yati denotes an ascetic. The term is derived from the root yat, to strive, to exert oneself, and is also connected with the root yam, to restrain, to subdue, to control. Etymologically, Yati can only mean a person engaged in religious exercise such as tapas, austerities and Yoga. The marble statuettes of Mohenjodaro, with head, neck and body quite erect and half-shut eyes fixed on the tip of the nose have the exact posture of one engaged in practicing Yoga. These statuettes were those of the Yatis of the proto-historic and prehistoric Indus civilization intended either for worship or as votive offerings, according to R.P.Chanda.

But the mythology, the poetry and the elaborate sacrificial rites of the Rishis made a stronger appeal to the nobility and the masses than the Yoga exercise carried on in solitude. So as Vedic religion became more and more popular, the Yatis receded into the background and were gradually reduced to the condition of the outcast religious mendicants or Vratyas. But when the growth of belief in the doctrines of transmigration and of Atman (Self), the knowledge of Self or the Absolute came to be recognized as the way to final emancipation, the Yoga of the Yatis came to its own again as a means of gaining that knowledge and gave birth to the Brahmanic order of the Sannyasins, who are Yatis par excellence and to the non-Brahmin order of the Sramanas like the Sakyaputriyas (Buddhists), the Nigranthas (Jainas), the Ajivikas and others. According to Mundaka Upanishad, the Yatis (referred to in the Rigveda as hostile to Vedic rites) are depicted as persons who had given up worldly affairs, practiced Yoga and realized Brahman.

According to R.N.Dandekar, a study of the early Veda would make it abundantly clear that the concepts relating to Yoga are quite foreign to it. The most distinctive characteristic of the Vedic religious practice was homa, while the non-Vedic religious practice was characterized by Bali, Puja and Yoga. The followers of non-Vedic cults like the Vratya cult, the Brahmacarin cult and the Muni cult had no faith in the efficacy of the Vedic rituals and as against it had developed the practices of Yoga which helped them attain magical and miraculous powers. The Vratyas are said to have practiced pranayama and other similar austerities and were instrumental in the transmission of Yoga-like knowledge. The Hatha Yoga Pradipika mentions that Hatha Yoga started from Adinath (Shiva) and then enumerates thirty five great Siddhas in all from Matsyendranatha, Goraksanatha onwards.

Yogis of Yore

Many works mention Hiranyagarbha as the proponent of Yoga. For instance Vacaspati in his commentary on the Yoga Sutra states that Yogi Yajnavalkya mentions that Hiranyagarbha was the proponent of Yoga. Ahirbudhnya Samhita states that Hiranyagarbha propounded two Yoga Samhitas, namely Nirodha Yoga and Karma Yoga. In the Mahabharata (Shantiparva) it is said that Hiranyagarbha was the ancient knower of yoga and no one else knew it. Similarly there is reference to one Jaigisavya as a great Yogi in the Mahabharata (Shalyaparva and Shantiparva), Varaha Purana and Buddhacarita. This shows that Jaigisavya was a great teacher of yoga long before the Christian era and probably had composed a work on yoga that is currently unavailable.

The doctrines of Yoga had been developed even before the Katha, Mundaka, Shvetasvatara and other Upanishads. Based on the reference to Yoga in Apastamba Dharma Sutra, P.V.Kane says that long before the 4^th or 5^th century B.C., Yoga as a discipline of the mind had been well developed.

Meaning of the term Yoga

The word Yoga is derived from the Sanskrit verbal root yuj, meaning to yoke, to join or to unite. The word Yoga occurs in the Rigveda in various senses, such as yoking or harnessing, achieving the unachieved, connection, etc. There is a great distance or gap between the meaning of the word yoga in the Rigveda and its meaning in some of the Upanishads and in classical Sanskrit. According to S.N.Dasgupta, tapas (asceticism) and brahmacharya (vows of celibacy) were regarded as the greatest virtues and as these could be achieved only by controlling one’s senses, the word yoga which was originally applied to the control of steeds began to be applied to the control of the senses.

Yoga Sutra of Patanjali

Patanjali, who composed the Yoga Sutra was not the founder of the Yoga but an editor who collected the different forms of Yoga practices, gleaned the diverse ideas that were or could be associated with Yoga, grafted them all on the Sankhya metaphysics, and gave them the form in which they have been handed down to us.

Yoga Sutra is divided into four chapters/parts, Samadhi Pada (concentration), Sadhana Pada (means of attainment), Vibhuti Pada (supernormal powers) and Kaivalya Pada (aloofness, liberation). According to S.N.Dasgupta, the last chapter/part is a subsequent addition by a hand other than that of Patanjali.

Yoga Sutra gives us an eight fold path of discipline to control the body, the senses and the mind. They are Yama (moral observances), Niyama (self-restraint or self purification by discipline), Asana (postures), Pranayama (breath control), Pratyahara (withdrawal and emancipation of the mind from the dominance of the senses and exterior objects), Dharana (concentration), Dhyana (meditation) and Samadhi (a state of trance or super consciousness or ecstasy).

Patanjali might have lived anytime between the 4^th century and the 2^nd century B.C. Apart from Yoga Sutra, he is said to have written Mahabhasya, a commentary on Panini’s, Astadhyayi and a medical text called the Patanjala tantra. While some scholars identify the author of Yoga Sutra and Mahabhashya as one and the same, others hold them to be different.

Commentaries on Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra were written by Vyasa (4^th century A.D.), king Bhoja (10^th century A.D.), and Vijnanabhiksu (15^th century A.D.), Vacaspati (9^th century A.D.), wrote a commentary on Vyasa’s commentary on Yoga Sutra.

Yoga and Sankhya

Yoga is intimately allied to Sankhya philosophy. The Bhagavad Gita calls them one. Yoga means spiritual action and Sankhya means knowledge. Sankhya is theory and Yoga is practice. For all practical purposes, Sankhya and Yoga may be treated as the theoretical and practical side of the same system. Yoga accepts the three pramanas- perception, inference and testimony of Sankhya and also the 25 metaphysical principles. Both Sankhya and Yoga consider each individual Soul as eternal and its destiny is to become free from the influence of Prakrti and its evolutes and to remain forever as ‘Pure Intelligence’.

At the same time, there are certain points of difference between the two. The standard Sankhya finds no place for God (Ishvara) and it is frankly atheistic while Yoga finds a place for God. Another point of difference between them is that while Sankhya postulated that an intellectual understanding of the nature of Purusha and of Prakrti and the difference between the two was sufficient for the emancipation of the individual Self from the liability of rebirth, Yoga emphasized systematic training of the will and emotions.

Interpretation of the term Yoga

The term Yoga is most frequently interpreted as the union of the individual self (jivataman) with the supreme Self (Paramatman). This notion of union is valid for the schools of Yoga that are influenced by the Vedanta philosophy. However the metaphor of union does not at all fit the system of classical Yoga as formulated by Patanjali, in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra, there is no mention of a union with the transcendental Reality as the ultimate target of the Yogic endeavour. Given Patanjali’s dualist metaphysics, which strictly separates the transcendental Self (Purusha) from Nature (Prakrti) and its products, this would not make any sense. Patanjali defines Yoga simply as ‘restraint in the fluctuations of mind stuff’. Bhojaraja, commentator of Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras, explains Yoga as being a state of complete separation of the Purusha (Self) and Prakrti (Primordial Nature). This view of Bhojaraja is in keeping with the fundamental metaphysical position of the Sankhya and Yoga philosophy. The Shandilya Upanishad mentions Yoga as one of the two ways of the cessation of the minds working and the Maha Upanishad calls Yoga ‘a method of making the mind silent’. On the other hand Yoga Yajnavalkhya defines Yoga as the union of jivatman and the Paramatman and the Vishnu Purana defines Yoga as the union of the purified mind with Brahman.

Yoga an adjunct to religion

Yoga is an adjunct to religion and has always been treated as such in India. Many of the disciplines and practices of Yoga are common to all the great religions of mankind or at least to their esoteric aspects. The main difference is that in Yoga they have been brought into a methodological system divested of other rituals. This gives to Yoga the semblance of an independent cult. Yoga is counted among the six traditional or viewpoints (darshanas) of Hinduism.

In Bhagavad Gita, Yoga is treated as a powerful means towards emancipation; as an integral and essential part of man’s religious zeal. In fact, all sects, creeds and faiths (the followers of Vedanta, Shaktas, Shaivas, Vaishnavas, Buddhists, etc.) in India depend on Yoga for the demonstration of their truths and the verification of their varied and sometimes diametrically opposed beliefs.

Types of Yoga

Yoga although one is differentiated according to practice and usage. Some late Sanskrit works like the Yogatattvopanishad and Sivasamhita speak of four Yogas viz., Mantra Yoga, Hatha Yoga, Laya Yoga and Raja Yoga. In Bhagavad Gita the term Jnana Yoga, Bhakti Yoga and Karma Yoga occurs. Other forms of Yoga are Nada Yoga, Kriya Yoga and Kundalini Yoga.

Mantra Yoga: Mantra Yoga is the rhythmic repetition of a mantra (a sacred word), in front of a deity. The greatest of the mantras is the syllable of obeisance, AUM, which represents the highest and most abstract aspect of Divinity.

Hatha Yoga: Hatha Yoga aims to transform the human body to make it a worthy vehicle for Self-realization through the practice of asanas, pranayama, mudras and bandhas. The Hathayogapradipika declares Hatha Yoga to be a ladder to Raja Yoga. It also states that there can be no Raja Yoga without Hatha Yoga and vice versa. They are counterparts of each other.

Laya Yoga: The word Laya is derived from the root ‘Li ’ having two meanings, one is ‘to become dissolved’ or ‘vanish’ and another is ‘to cling’ and ‘to remain sticking’. The Laya yogins seek to meditatively dissolve themselves by clinging solely to the transcendental Self. They endeavour to transcend all memory trances and sensory experiences by dissolving the microcosm, the mind, into the transcendental Being- Consciousness Bliss.

Raja Yoga: Raja Yoga is a practical and scientifically worked out method of concentration and meditation. This method is needed more or less in every Yoga or the way to spiritualization and therefore it is regarded as the royal path, the king of Yogas. Vijnanabhikshu treats Raja Yoga and Patanjali’s Yoga as synonyms. Raja Yoga became very popular during the composition of various Yoga Upanishads.

Jnana Yoga: This Yoga is based entirely upon the monistic principles of the Advaita or non-dualistic system of the Vedanta. Its purpose is to show that subject and object are but the two expressions of one absolute Being, that God and man, the Creator and the created, are only different aspects of one universal Reality. Jnana Yoga teaches that right discrimination and proper analysis are indispensable to the acquisition of knowledge of the true Self and the Reality that underlies phenomenal objects. It also declares that the knowledge of the Self will bring to the soul the realization of absolute Truth more quickly than the practice of the Raja Yoga, Karma Yoga or Bhakti Yoga.

Bhakti Yoga: This Yoga is especially suited for those who are emotional in nature and have a highly developed feeling of love and devotion. A practitioner of Bhakti Yoga resigns himself entirely to God and surrenders his will to the will of the almighty One. Every action of his body and mind is performed simply to please God.

Karma Yoga: The central idea of Karma Yoga seems to be that we cannot remain without acting even for a short time. We have to respond to the environment. It is for the wise man, however, to respond without any choice or desire for a particular effect. A practitioner of Karma Yoga abandons attachment to the fruits of his labours and learns to work for work’s sake, keeping in mind the idea that by his work he is paying off the debt that he owes to his parents, society, country and all mankind.

Nada Yoga: Nada means sound. In this type of Yoga, the mind is fixed on Nada or Anahata sounds. Anahata literally means unbeaten or unstruck and it is a type of sound not coming from striking or beating certain things or objects but from the Anahata Chakra. By meditating on this sound the Yogi enters samadhi and attains knowledge of the Self.

Kriya Yoga: This Yoga constitutes the performance of austerities (tapas), study of scriptures (svadhyaya) and self-surrender (Isvara Pranidhana).

Kundalini Yoga: In this Yoga the Kundalini is awakened and made to rise through the six centres along the central artery of the subtle body from the Muladhara to the Lotus-of-a-thousand-petals at the top of the head where it merges into the Supreme Person. Kundalini is the consciousness (cit-shakti) which as a result of the evolutionary process of creation becomes limited as jiva (a living being). When Kundalini is aroused she proceeds to revert to her real existence as undifferentiated from the ultimate Reality. She is called Kundalini, as she is visualized as a coiled snake lying inside the lowest Chakra called Muladhara (at the base of the spine). Since cit-shakti is identified with the Goddess, the cosmic woman, Kundalini is referred to as feminine.

Patanjali Yoga vis-à-vis Hatha Yoga

According to P.V.Kane, there are really only two main systems of Yoga, namely the one expounded in the Yoga Sutra and the other dealt with in such works as the Goraksashataka and the Hathayogapradipika of Svatmarama Yogin. Briefly, the difference between the two is that the Yoga of Patanjali concentrates all efforts on the discipline of the mind, while Hatha Yoga mainly concerns itself with the body, its health, its purity and freedom from diseases. Hatha Yoga deals with processes such as Dhauti (washing the stomach), Basti (Yogic enema) and Nauli (shaking the abdomen) about which Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra is silent. According to Goraksashataka and Hathayogapradipika, the main aim of asana and pranayama is to rouse the Kundalini (the vital force in a person slumbering at the base of the spine coiled like a snake) and take it through the several Chakras and the Sushumna-nadi to Brahmadvara while the Yoga Sutra of Patanjali hardly ever speaks upon Chakras and Nadis.

Yoga is a unique contribution of India to the world. Since 2015, the International Day of Yoga has been observed around the world on June 21^st every year to spread awareness about the benefits of Yoga and meditation.

Reference:

1. Surendranath Dasgupta – A History of Indian Philosophy, vol – 1
2. R.N.Dandekar – Vedic Mythological Tracts, Ajanta Publication, 1979
3. R.P.Chanda – Survival of the Pre-historic civilization of the Indus Valley, ASI, New Delhi, 1998
4. K.C.Joshi – On the meaning of Yoga, Philosophy East & West, vol 15, No.1, January 1965
5. P.T.Raju – Structural Depths of Indian Thoughts, 1985
6. Complete Works of Swami Abhedananda, vol -3, Ramakrishna Vedanta Math, Calcutta, 1958
7. Gopi Krishna – Kundalini – The Secret of Yoga,1990
8. P.V.Kane – History of Dharmashastras, vol – 5, part-2, BORI, Poone, 1962
9. Sanjukta Gupta, Dirk Jan Hoens, Teun Goudriaan – Hindu Tantrism, 1979
10. Georg Feuerstein – The Yoga Tradition: Its history, literature, philosophy and practice, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt Ltd, Delhi, 2002
11. Georg Feuerstein – The Encyclopedia of Yoga and Tantra, Shambhala, 2011
12. Alain Danielou – Yoga–The Method of Re-Integration, University Book Publishers, New York, 1955
13. Swami Sivananda – Tantra Yoga, Nada Yoga & Kriya Yoga, A Divine Life Society Publication, 1994
14. Chandradhar Sharma – Indian Philosophy: A Critical Survey, Barnes & Noble, INC, 1962
15. Sarika Anuru Mishra – The Concept of Raja Yoga, Bulletin of the Deccan College of Post-Graduate and Research Institute, vol – 76, 2016

Did Ayurveda originated in the Vedic tradition?

According to Charaka the science of life (medical science) has always been in existence. In ancient India we find professional physicians called Vaidyas or bhishaks originally belonging to a class of people known as Ambashtas. Then there were wandering pedlars, mostly of tribal origin who collected herbs and drugs from forests and mountains and sold them in villages. Also priests belonging to the Vaikhanasa sect functioned as physicians. With regards to professional physicians having literary traditions, the practitioners of the Rasayana school, Siddha and Ayurveda are prominent and the origins of these medical systems go back to a very remote past.

In the system of therapeutic alchemy known as Rasavaidya or the Rasayana school, the use of metals and mercury was extensive. This tradition, normally included in the Ayurveda tradition developed almost independently of the Vedic corpus, and profited by contact with such cultures as the Arabian, the Persian and the Chinese.

The Siddha system of medicine, which obviously is outside the Vedic tradition is at present is prevalent only in south India, especially Tamilnadu.

The medical system represented by physician Charaka and by the surgeon Sushruta are collectively designated as Ayurveda or the science of life.

Charaka refers to Ayurveda as a distinct Veda which is superior to the other Vedas, while Sushruta calls Ayurveda a upanga of the Atharvaveda and Vagbhatta the elder refers it as a upaveda of the Atharvaveda. As the Vedic literature is chiefly concerned with religion and rituals, how come the science of medicine came to be connected with it and the reason behind it is examined in this article.

There is no Veda called Ayurveda

The term Ayurveda does not occur at all in any of the works of Vedic literature. Perhaps the Ashtadhyayi of Panini is the oldest work, where this word has been cited twice. The Mahabharata puts forth the term Ayurveda along with its eight-fold divisions. Hence it would be wrong to regard Ayurveda as a development of Rigveda or of Yajurveda. In fact the practitioners of medicine were considered unclean and impure by the followers of Vedic tradition and according to the Dharma Shastras, the profession of physicians was meant for the lower class. For instance the Apastamba Dharma Sutra declares that the food given by a physician, a hunter, a surgeon, unfaithful wife or a eunuch must not be eaten. Gautama Dharma Sutra asserts that a Brahmin must not accept food from an artisan, a criminal, a carpenter, a surgeon and such other persons. Vasishta Dharma Sutra says food given by a physician, a hunter, a thief, an outcast must not be eaten. Even alms, though offered without asking, must not be accepted from a physician and a surgeon. Similarly Smrtis like Manu Smrti declares that it is prohibited for members of higher castes to accept food from the physicians as the food given by them is like pus and blood.

Contempt for Ayurveda in orthodox circles

In the Rigveda except for some late songs (hymns) in this vast collection, the question of the castes and caste-privileges does not have any place. Hence in the Rigveda the twin gods, Ashvins are highly eulogised for their medical and surgical skills. An entire hymn (x.97) in the Rigveda is in praise of the healing herb or oushadhi. Among the physician deities of the Rigveda are Soma, Rudra and Varuna.

The main features of the hierarchical society assumes very clear forms in the Yajurveda and Brahmana texts where physicians come under strong condemnation. Hence we find Ashwins are degraded because of their medical past and in spite of being a Veda, the Atharvaveda is looked upon with subdued contempt. The condemnation continues throughout the legal literature from Apastamba and Gautama belonging to a few centuries before the Christian era to the late commentators of Manu like Kulluka Bhatta of the 12^th -13^th century A.D., wherein the lawgivers insist that the medical practice must remain restricted to those that are supposed to be base-born. Takshashila, a famous centre for the cultivation of medicine was considered an impure region by orthodox Brahmins.

The reason why Ayurveda was frowned upon by the orthodox circles was due to the fact that Ayurveda was based on scientific principles where mysticism, rituals and religion had no place. This viewpoint would have affected the powers and privileges of the priestly class whose influence over the society was through their knowledge of rituals and religion. Another reason why the art of healing was looked down upon was because Ayurveda extolled the virtues of wine and in its pharmacopoeia had both alcohol and meat for making medicines. Charaka lists as many as 170 medicines of animal origin. The Ayurvedic advice like – ‘there is no sin in eating meat, in drinking liquor or in sex indulgence which are natural inclination’ was frowned upon by the orthodox.

Necessity made Ayurveda’s acceptance into the Vedic fold

But as it was necessary and practical to accept medical aid in times of need, Ayurveda had to be accommodated within the Vedic complex and it was done after inventing a mythology to its origin and affiliating it with the Atharvaveda (as Atharavaveda also dealt with curative aspects). Apart from this the Ayurvedic texts were interpolated with religious and magical elements.

Interpolation in Ayurvedic texts

Several scholars argue that Ayurveda was scientific and that the many religious and magical elements found in the texts were either stale Vedic remnants or later Brahmanic impositions that sought to repress Ayurvedic’s revolutionary empiricism. According to Zimmermann – ‘In a tradition dominated by the Pundits, Ayurveda represents the seed of secular thought. True this secularism is almost immediately repressed, normalized and impregnated with a religious vocabulary. Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya argues that in ancient India, the only discipline that promises to be fully secular and contains clear potentials of the modern understanding of natural science is medicine and the magico-religious aspects of the texts are alien elements and later grafts. G.Jan Meulenbeld suggests that Brahminic domination is the reason that Ayurveda was unable to pursue its empirical course of modifying theories in the light of observed anomalies. According to these views, the classical Ayurveda texts consist of distinct layers: authentic Ayurveda – empirical, rational and scientific and one or more inauthentic and ill fitting religious strata. According to Steven Engler, Ayurveda did not clearly distinguish between what we would now call ‘science’ and ‘religion’. Magical and religious elements are too prominent, too intermingled with empirical passages, and too explicitly acknowledged as part of Ayurveda to allow them to be simply explained away. However, there does seem to be good reason to credit the claim that some of the religious elements of the classical Ayurvedic texts were added by parties sympathetic with Brahmanic orthodoxy.

Texts intermixed with religious and magical elements

Religious ideas are found throughout the Ayurvedic texts of Charaka and Sushruta. For instance Sushruta (ci.24.43) says -‘Devotion to the gods, Brahmanas add to one’s good name, piety, wealth, progeny and duration of life’. Charaka (Ni.7.11) says – ‘desire for inflicting injury upon the gods, cows, Brahmins and ascetics is a sign of insanity caused by gods.’ Charaka Samhita (Sa.8.34; cf.In.12.80) says Brahmins versed in Atharvaveda are to be present at childbirth and Sushruta Samhita (Su.46.141) says that mantras from Atharvaveda are to be recited before all meals in order to detoxify food. Views about the cow are very ambiguous in Ayurvedic texts. On the one hand it says cattle products (beef, milk, urine and dung) are to be taken internally for medicinal purposes. For instance Charaka Samhita (Sa.8.41) mentions that after giving birth, women should consume a paste made, in part from ‘a portion of the right ear of the untamed and alive bull cut and smashed in a stone mortar.’ On the other hand the text insists that cows should not be harmed. How can we interpret a text that holds that cows are to be both eaten and not harmed asks Steven Engler and opines that the apparent contradiction can be resolved if we accept that the religious elements are earlier survivals or later imposition.

Ayurveda rooted in Tantric tradition

According to S.K.Ramachandra Rao the Indian medical systems including the Ayurveda were rooted in the Tantric culture which at that point of time was pre-Vedic and were to a great extent influenced by the Samkhya-Yoga philosophy. We have to note that both the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita are only reconstructions and redactions of earlier tantras which have been lost. The very expression Samhita in the works ascribed to Charaka and Sushruta betrays an anxiety to fall in line with the orthodox texts belonging to the Vedic literature. Of the 1500 medical tracts listed in Aufrecht’s Catalogue, a good many are styled Tantras. Even the eight branches of classical Ayurveda were called Tantras- Shalyatantra, Agadatantra, Rasayanatantra, etc. It is not accidental that all these were called Tantras. The belongingness of Ayurveda to the tantric tradition has been consistent and Rudra, a divinity belonging to the Tantric culture was the first physician.

It is also possible that the medical wisdom and skill of the professional physician in ancient India were ultimately founded on folk tradition. The essential framework was provided by folk expertise and the details were worked out in subsequent years by observation, reasoning, experience and also experimentation.

Reference

S.K.Ramachandra Rao -Edited, Encyclopaedia of Indian Medicine, vol – I, Popular Prakashan, Bombay, 1985, pp: 2,3.

Jyotir Mitra – Development of Medical Sciences in Vedic India, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol-30, 1968

Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya – Science and Society in Ancient India, Research India Publications, Calcutta, 1977

Steven Engler – ‘Science vs Religion’ in Classical Ayurveda, Numen, vol – 5, No. 4, 2003

A Brief History of the evolution of Ayurveda

The term Ayurveda meaning knowledge (Veda) concerning the maintenance of life (Ayus) is considered as the most ancient and authoritative work on the Hindu system of medical sciences. It is the only applied science which is still in practice having an unbroken continuity.

Origin of Ayurveda

According to the medical texts of Ayurveda, Brahma, the first specialist in medical science, is considered to be the original propagator of Ayurveda. The order of transmission of the knowledge of Ayurveda as set forth in the Charaka Samhita is from Brahma – Daksha Prajapati – Aswini twins – Indra. Indra revealed the knowledge of Internal medicine (Kayachikitsa) to Bharadvaja and the knowledge of Surgery (Shalya) to Divodasa, the king of Kashi who was also an incarnation of the divine Dhanvantari.

From Bharadvaja internal medicine was passed on to Atreya Punarvasu. Atreya had several disciples like Agnivesha, Bhela, Jatukarna, Parashara, Harita and Ksarapani, all of whom were also the authors of Ayurvedic texts in their respective names. Agnivesha’s work was subsequently redacted by Charaka and Drdhabala. (The original work of Agnivesha is not available now).

From Divodasa, the knowledge of surgery was passed on to his chief disciple Sushruta, son of Vishwamitra.

The mythical stories about the origin of Ayurveda may have been circulated to make it acceptable to people. Just as good reviews or opinions expressed by eminent authorities make a book more acceptable to people now-a-days, it seems in the same manner, in ancient times, manuscripts or knowledge said to have a divine origin or basis was more acceptable.

Ayurveda’s connection with Atharvaveda

Sushruta calls Ayurveda a upanga of the Atharvaveda and Vagbhatta the elder refers it as a upaveda of the Atharvaveda. But the treatment of disease (chikitsa) in the Atharvaveda is largely religious and ritualistic, emphasizing such practices as the articulation of ‘sacred utterances’ (mantras), penances (niyama), sacred oblations (mangala homa) and purificatory rites (prayascitta). At the same time Atharvaveda also contains material about human autonomy, herbal medicines and classification of diseases. References are made to ‘wandering medical practioners’ (aranyavidyas) and those trained in medical science (vaidyas). Of the eight branches of classical Ayurveda, Bhuta Vidya, Agadatantra and Vajjikarna belonged to Atharvaveda and the other five branches developed altogether independently of Atharvaveda.

Philosophical basis of Ayurveda

The influence of Samkhya and Nyaya Vaisheshika systems, in particular on the development of the philosophical basis of Ayurveda was considerable. Examples of this influence may be seen in the Ayurvedic belief in the utility of analysis and the reliability of reason and the acceptance of the reality of the external world.

Branches of Ayurveda

Ayurveda has eight specialized branches, namely

• Shalya tantra – Surgery
• Shalakya tantra – Treatment of diseases of the eyes, ears, nose and throat
• Kayachikistsa
• Bala tantra/Kaumarabhrtya – Pediatrics
• Agada tantra – Toxicology
• Bhuta Vidya – Treatment of seizures by evil spirits and other mental disorders
• Rasayana tantra – Geriatric, including rejuvenation therapy
• Vajikarana tantra – Sexology and use of aphrodisiacs

Doctrine of Tridosha

The practitioners of Ayurveda believed that the body is a community of the variants of the five elements namely space, air, fire, water and earth which were in turn called dhatus. When the dhatus hold together and remain in equilibrium, the state is called dhatusamya which is equivalent to health. When their normal measure is disturbed and they are in disequilibrium, the result is dhatuvaishamya or ill health. The tridosha concept which forms the cornerstone of Ayurveda holds that of all waste products produced by the body, vata, pitta and kapha are primarily responsible for ailments and they are called doshas.

Texts of Ayurveda

The Indian tradition speaks of three major source books of Ayurveda figuratively called Brhattrayi (the great trio) or the Vrddha trayi (the three elder ones). These are Charaka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita and Ashtanga-Samgraha of Vagbhatta. Vagbhatta composed the Ashtanga-Samgraha by bringing together the relevant medical knowledge contained in Charaka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita, Bhela Samhita, Kashyapa Samhita, Harita Samhita, etc.

Date of Charaka

Gerald James Larson opines that Charaka was possibly a court physician to king Kanishka in the 1^st century A.D. and the Charaka Samhita was completed by a certain Drdhabala in 500 A.D. But Ram Karan Sharma and Vaidya Bhagvan Dash suggest that probably Charaka flourished in 8^th century B.C. and Drdhabala who lived before 300 A.D. was most probably none other than Charaka the second who was the court physician of king Kanishka. According to O.P.Jaggi Charaka may have lived between the 2^nd century B.C. and 2^nd century A.D. and the most accepted date for the redaction of the Charaka Samhita by Charaka is around A.D.100 and it was during the 9^th century A.D., the Charaka Samhita was again edited and reconstructed by a Kashmiri Pandit name Drdhabala. He redacted the Charaka Samhita which was available only in 3/4^th of the original contents and added the 1/4^th portion himself. There are as many as 43 Sanskrit commentaries on Charaka Samhita of which that of Chakrapani Datta is considered to be the most authoritative.

Charaka Samhita is divided into eight section, namely

• Sutrasthana
• Nidanasthana
• Vimanasthana
• Sharirasthana
• Indriyasthana
• Cikitsasthana
• Kalpasthana and
• Siddhisthana

Date of Sushruta Samhita

According to the authors of Sushruta Samhita, A Scientific Synopsis, the original Sushruta Samhita may have been composed in a period intermediate between the time of Buddha (6^th century B.C.) and that of Katyayana, a scholar who lived in the court of king Nanda (350 B.C.). Katyayana refers to Sushruta as the author of a treatise bearing the same name Sushrutena proktam Saushrutam. The date of the recension of the Sushruta Samhita by Nagarjuna may have taken place between 3^rd to 4^th century A.D.

Priya Vrat Sharma is of the view that there were two Sushrutas, Sushruta I and Sushruta II. The former was the contemporary of Divodasa who lived during 1500 – 1000 B.C. and received the knowledge of surgery directly from him. Sushruta II who expanded and refined the text of Sushruta Samhita lived during 2^nd century A.D. The redactor of this text Nagarjuna lived during 5^th century A.D.

According to O.P.Jaggi Sushruta may have lived around 6^th century B.C. and wrote Shalyatantra which was revised, supplemented and renamed as Sushruta Samhita by Nagarjuna sometime between the 3^rd century and 4^th century A.D.

As regards to Nagarjuna, there were at least three Nagarjunas in the first millenium A.D., apart from Nagarjuna, the founder of the Madhyamika school of Buddhism and all of them were experts in alchemy and medicine. The redactor of the Sushruta Samhita may have been one of them. The practice of adopting the name of a previous authority as a title, or a pseudonym has been fairly common in the history and literature of India in all ages. Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya denies the role of Nagarjuna, the Buddhist philosopher in revising the Sushruta Samhita.

Works on medicine and surgery by Aupadhenava, Aurabhra or Pauskalavata as mentioned in commentaries of Dallanacarya and Cakrapani Datta have not been traced so far. Only Nagarjuna’s revised version of Sushruta’s work remains as evidence of the existence of the high attainment of this ancient Indian science of surgery.

A number of commentaries were written on Sushruta Samhita but at present only that of Dalhana’s (12^th or 13^th century A.D.) is available in complete form. Dalhana made use of all commentaries written on Sushruta Samhita by Jejjada Acharya, Gayadasa, Bhaskara, Madhava, Brahmadeva and Chakrapani Datta in revising and collating the text of Sushruta Samhita.

Shalya is the name applied to the art of surgery in Indian medicine. In classical times surgery was regarded as the most important branch of medicine and in Ayurveda itself it is accorded the first place and heads the eight divisions of medicine. Sushruta Samhita is divided into five sections, namely

• Sutrasthana
• Nidanasthana
• Sharirasthana
• Cikitsasthana
• Kalpasthana and
• Uttara tantra which is believed to be added to the original text by redactor Nagarjuna.

The basic commentary on Charaka Samhita, the Ayurveda-Dipika of Chakrapani Datta was composed in the 11^th century A.D. and the basic commentaries on the Sushruta Samhita namely the Bhanumati of Chakrapani Datta and the Nibandhasamgraha of Dalhana were composed in the 11^th and 13^th century A.D. respectively.

Kashyapa Samhita and Bhela Samhita

Other important classics on Ayurveda are Kashyapa Samhita and Bhela Samhita.

Kashyapa Samhita contains the teachings of Kashyapa and was compiled by his disciple Vrdha Jivaka in the 2^nd century A.D. Later it was known as Vrdha Jivaka Tantra and was redacted by Vatsya in the 7^th century A.D. It is the only available source book on Kaumarabhrtya (pediatric) and today there is only one edition of Kashyapa Samhita with Hindi translation.

The compendium by Bhela has come down to us in a single manuscript which is written in Telugu script. The extant manuscript has been written about 1650 A.D. and preserved in the Palace Library, Tanjore.

Different authors between 10^th and 16^th century A.D. have made reference or cited quotations from Navanitaka, a compendium of medicine. Composed in broken Sanskrit mixed with Prakrit and written in Gupta script of 4^th or 5^th century A.D., this manuscript is also known as Bower’s Manuscript as this manuscript was purchased by a person named Bower. The author of this work quotes from Charaka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita and Bhela Samhita.

Teaching of Medical science in Ancient India

During ancient times Ayurveda was taught in universities and Taxila was a great centre of medical education during the time of Buddha. It is said that Jivaka, the royal physician of king Bimbisara of Magadha, spent seven years at Taxila to study medicine. Jivaka was a specialist in the treatment of children’s diseases and also treated Buddha of his ailments.

Another method of the study of the Ayurvedic system of medicine involved attachment to a teacher as an apprentice resident in the teacher’s household. Education according to classical texts, involved several years of memorizing and understanding a text as well as practical experience before students would be permitted to establish an independent practice. Learning Ayurveda also required a high level of literacy in Sanskrit. Successful practitioners were those who served successful rulers and either through regular service or because of some special healing act, were granted an area of land.

Decline of Ayurveda during the Muslim and British period

During the Muslim rule over India, the State patronized the Unani system of medicine and as a result its practitioners, the Hakims were appointed in hospitals and dispensaries opened by the Muslim rulers. At the same time Muslim scholars translated the anthologies of Ayurvedic texts into Persian and Arabic languages and adopted drugs and other therapies from Ayurvedic practice.

Early during the British rule over India, the Native Medical Institution (NMI) was established where Ayurveda, Unani and European medical science were taught. But after Macaulay’s Minute on Education (1835), the NMI ceased teaching Ayurveda and Unani and only European medicine was taught in English medium. Medical bureaucrats became hostile to indigenous medicine at the turn of the 19^th century and at the end of World War II, medical advisors to the provincial governtments asserted that the Indian system of medicine were archaic, incapable of advance and based on unsound principles. In between 1912 and 1919 Medical Registration Acts and Medical Degrees Act were passed in all provinces which restricted the use of the title ‘Doctor’ for Ayurvedic practitioners.

Revival of Ayurveda

Growth of nationalism led to the revival of Ayurveda and its reformation. Ayurvedic medical colleges and hospitals were established and courses in anatomy and physiology were added to traditional subjects. In 1907 the All Indian Ayurveda Conference was founded by Shankaradaji Shastri Pade and in 1909 the All India Ayurvedic Vidyapita was established with the object of promoting Ayurvedic science and its practitioners.

Encouragement to the study of indigenous systems of medicine including Ayurveda began with the introduction of Local Self Government in 1919. Committees were set up in different provinces to study and recommend how best the indigenous system of medicine could be promoted and given state recognition. Between 1921 -1947 many of these committees met and made their recommendations, but the action taken on these recommendations remained insignificant.

Ministry of Ayush

After 1947, the Pandit Committee (1949), the Dave Committee (1955), the Udupa Committee (1957-58) and the Mudaliar Committee (1961) were set up and made several recommendations. Later the Government constituted the Council of Ayurvedic Research and in 1969, the Central Council for Research in Indian Medicine and Homoeopathy was constituted to initiate, aid and develop and coordinate scientific research in different aspects, fundamental and applied, of Indian medicine including Homoeopothy. In 1995 the Department of Indian System of Medicine and Homoeopathy (ISM&H) was formed and it was renamed Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy (Ayush) in November 2003 and in 2014 the Ministry of Ayush was formed for developing education, research and propagation of traditional medicine system in India.

Reference

• O.P.Jaggi – Ayurveda: Indian System of Medicine, History of Science, Technology and Medicine in India, vol -iv, Atma Ram & Sons, New Delhi, 1981
• M.S.Valiathan – Glimpses of Ancient Indian Medicine – Part- I, Current Science, vol – 59, No.9, 10th May 1990
• Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya – Science and Society in Ancient India, Research India Publications, Calcutta, 1977
• Priyadarajan Ray, Hirendranath Gupta, Mira Roy – Sushruta Samhita (A Scientific Synopsis), Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, 1993
• Ram Karan Sharma & Vaidya Bhagwan Dash – Agnivesha’s Caraka Samhita (based on Cakrapani Datta’s Ayurveda Dipika), Vol – I, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi, 1983
• Susruta Samhita, with English translation of text and Dalhana’s commentary along with critical notes, vol – I, Edited and translated by Priya Vrat Sharma, Chaukhambha Visvabharati, Varanasi, 2013
• Gerald James Larson – Ayurveda and the Hindu philosopical Systems, Philosophy East and West, vol 37, No.3, July 1987
• Jeffery Roger – The Politics of Health in India, University of California Press, 1988
• Md Nazrul Islam – Repackaging Ayurveda in Post-Colonial India: Revivalism and Global Commodification, PhD thesis, University of Hong Kong, 2008

A Brief note on the History of Currency in India – Part II

The rise of Arab power and the consequent disturbances in Central Asia interrupted trade between India and the west by land and sea and must have curtailed the import of silver from abroad. Paucity of silver in the medieval period compelled the Rajput dynasties of north India to issue coins in billon – a mixture of silver and copper in varying proportions. The coming of Turks synchronized with the reappearance of silver in the currency due to the opening up of commercial relations with Central Asia. But during the early period of Turkish rule in northern India, the billon coins known as ‘Dilliwala’ continued as a token currency for ordinary use. It had a horseman on the obverse and the humped bull with the ruler’s name in Nagari script on the reverse. Gradually the Hindu features were obliterated from the coins and the representations of animals and human figures ceased completely and the coins were embellished with inscriptions on both sides. The information in the inscriptions contained the name of the king, his titles, the Hijri Era (622 A.D.), the Kalima, (There is no God but Allah; Muhammad is his prophet), names of the four Khalifas and the place where the coin was minted.

The launch of silver Tanka by Iltutmish

The reign of Iltutmish saw the introduction of silver and gold coins called Tankas which weighed 172-180 grains. He also issued a billon coin called Jital and copper coins called Fulus and half Fulus called Adl. One silver Tanka consisted of 48-50 jitals. During the rule of Allauddin Khilji there was an increase in gold and silver coinage which has been attributed by the historians to his plunder of the Deccan. This apart, much treasure and coin in the 13^th and 14^th centuries must have been coming through foreign trade. Also the increased revenue demand, the realisation of land revenue in cash as well as the heightened military activities all required a larger and larger use of money.

Token currency issued by Muhammad bin Tughlaq

In medieval India silver was most extensively used for coinage. The precious metal coins in the Delhi Sultanate came from the bullion supplied through trade with Central Asia, Iran, the Levantine region and Europe. According to Najaf Haider due to various reasons the supply of silver from foreign countries during 14^th and 15^th centuries decreased. The increasing trade and commerce and the vast dimensions of the Tughlaq Empire increased the demand for silver. The disbursement of silver coins to the imperial armies and civil services created a problem similar to that which Allauddin Khilji also had to face earlier. The latter had met it by lowering the salaries of the soldiers and controlling the prices of commodities. Muhammad bin Tughlaq met the problem of the scarcity of silver by three methods. First he raised the price of silver in relation to gold to the ratio of 7:1 instead of 10:1 which generally prevailed earlier. Secondly he increased the weight of gold coins and reduced that of silver coins. Under Allauddin Khilji gold and silver tankas weighed 175 grains each. Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced in their place gold Dinar of 200 grains and silver Adali of 144 grains. Thirdly to compensate for the shortage of silver, he introduced the token-currency made of bronze coins which was to be treated at par with silver currency. The fundamental principle of his token-currency was the same as that of the modern paper and metallic currency. The scheme was on the whole quite good but it failed due to various causes and Muhammad bin Tughlaq had to recall all the token coins.

The debasement of silver coinage led to billon and copper coins to dominate the market during the rule of Firuz Tughlaq and by the turn of 14^th century precious metal coinage had practically disappeared from north India. The Lodis never struck coins either in gold or silver. All contemporary literature of that period mentions billon coins – tanka i bahluli and tanka i sikandari, which were the principal coins in circulation till the time of Sher Shah

Reforms under Sher Shah

Earlier coins of all previous reigns, in fact of all ages, were allowed to circulate as legal tenders. Sher Shah abolished all old and billon coinage of mixed metals and struck well-executed pieces of gold, silver and copper coins to a fixed standard of both weight and fineness. His silver rupees which weighed 180 grains contained 175 grains of pure silver. He also issued a copper coin which weighed 330 grains and it had their halves, quarters, eighths and sixteenths. According to V.A.Smith- Sher Shah is entitled to the honour of establishing the reformed system of currency which lasted throughout the Mughal period and was maintained by the East India Company down to 1835.

Coinage under Akbar

Akbar issued gold, silver and copper coins. The silver rupee weighed 175 grains. He also introduced a square silver rupee known as Jalali. The chief copper coin of Akbar’s time was the dam also called paisa or fulus and weighed 323.5 grains and was the money for both the rich and the poor. It was divided into 25 parts known as jitals. The silver rupee was equivalent in value to 40 dams upto 1616 and 30 dams or a little more or less from 1627 onwards. In the 30^th year of his rule Akbar began to date his coins from the ilahi or divine era (from the first year of his reign) instead of the hijri era. His coins also had figures of hawk, duck and also of Rama and Sita. The number of mints which stood at seven during the time of Babur rose to 72 during the time of Akbar.

Jahangir struck round and square coins in gold and silver. Some of the changes which took place during the time of Aurangzeb was the restoration of the hijri era and stoppage of inscribing the kalima on coins. During the Mughal rule the silver rupee became the principal coin for commercial transaction and tax payment while the gold coin, muhr or ashrafi issued by them and weighing 169 grains was used for hoarding purposes. As a rule the gold muhr were issued from the mint at Agra and the silver rupees from the mint at Ahmedabad.

Coinage during the British rule over India

During the time of the Mughals, the emperors took special care that their subordinate rulers should not issue their own coins. With the disruption of the Mughal Empire, the different independent rulers set up their own mint and coined currency of its own. And when some of these rulers found themselves in difficulties they did not hesitate to debase their coinage. This must have introduced considerable difficulties and even confusion in the internal trade of the country, which can be realized from the fact that it was necessary to weigh and ascertain the value of each coin before acceptance. This led to the existence of a special class of experts called Shroffs, who specialized in this work. It is said that there were 994 different kinds of gold and silver coins in usage during the period when the East Indian Company was extending its political sway over India. The East Indian Company had obtained from the Mughal Emperor the right to coining in their own mints in 1717 at Bombay, in 1742 at Madras and in 1757 at Calcutta and prior to 1835 the British East India Company’s coins consisted of Sicca rupee in Bengal, the Surat rupee in Bombay and the Arcot rupee in Madras.

Silver rupee made the standard coin

On the recommendation of James Prinsep, an epoch-making reform of the British Indian coinage took place in 1835. The Act of 1835 made silver rupee weighing 180 grains (165 grains of pure silver and 15 of alloy) the standard coin and deprived gold coins as legal tender. The weight, size and fineness of the coins of all metals and denominations were standardized. The tola of 180 grains became the standard unit of weight for coinage and muhr in gold, the rupee in silver and the quarter anna in copper were all struck in a uniform weight standard.

Denominations

The denomination of the coins issued were the double and single muhr in gold, the full, half and quarter rupee in silver and half, one-fourth and one by twentieth anna piece in copper. The obverse of both gold and silver coins bore the effigy of the king of England and copper coins , the company’s – ‘coat of arms’. The reverse of the gold coins had the figure of lion and that of both silver and copper bore a ‘laurel wreath’. In 1841 a two anna silver coin and in 1853 a half piece copper coin was introduced.

During 1862-1876 coins of the 2^nd series were struck and in these coins the name of the East India Company disappeared in the reverse and the name of the issuing country, viz., India was introduced. The value of the coin and date of the issue were written in English alone. After 1889 the full, 2/3^rd and 1/3^rd muhr in gold (2/3^rd and 1/3^rd muhr in gold were issued in 1870 and were equivalent to ten and five rupee respectively) and after 1891 the 1/2 anna in copper was discontinued.

Gold and silver coins gradually phased out

During the reign of George VI (1937-1947) no gold coins were issued and silver coins of the denomination of one rupee, half rupee and quarter rupee were sparingly minted. In 1940 Quaternary silver or Q metal (composed of 50% silver, 40% copper, 5% nickel and 5% zinc) was introduced and used upto 1945 for minting one rupee, half rupee and quarter rupee which weighed 180, 90 and 45 grains respectively. In 1946 pure nickel was introduced to replace Q metal.

From 1939 to 1941 for minting two anna and one anna coins, copper was replaced by Cupro-nickel and in 1942 it was replaced by nickel-bronze. But Cupro-nickel was reintroduced in 1949 to replace nickel-bronze.

Bronze coins of the denominations of pice, half pice and pie were struck from 1938 – 1942 and the half pice and pie were discontinued from 1943 and a newly designed pice with a central hole was issued from 1943 to 1947.

Independent India started to issue a new series of coins precisely in the same metals and of the same denominations only with suitable changes in the obverse and reverse designs. In April 1957 one anna, four anna and eight annas were abolished and a new one rupee consisting of 100 paisa was introduced. Also were introduced two, five, ten, twenty five and fifty naya paisa.

Few Princely States were allowed to mint currencies

When the British established their rule in India the right of minting coins was conceded only to 34 Princely States. In 1876 the Indian Government passed an Act by which they offered to strike, free of charge, coins for the native states if the metal was supplied for the purpose to the government mints. Out of 34 States only Alwar and Bikaner accepted. Later the privilage of coining was withdrawn from most of the States. It was only Hyderabad, Udaipur, Jaipur, Tonk, Orchha and Travancore who were allowed to issue their coins in silver and copper; while Cutch, Jaisalmer and Kishangarh were allowed to issue only silver coins and Gwalior, Ratlam and Baroda allowed to issue only copper coins.

Issue of Paper currency

Before 1861 some ten banks including the three Presidency banks issued paper currency. It was confined to cities and its amount was very small. Even the denomination of the notes issued varied from one bank to another. By the Paper Currency Act of 1861 the business of issuing notes was transferred from the banks to the Government. To issue notes the Government of India established a new Department of Issue and Master of the Mint at Calcutta was appointed as the Head Commissioner of Issue and the Mint Masters of Bombay and Madras as Commissioners under him. Later the Currency Department came under the control of the Accounts Department and the Comptroller General of Accounts became the ex-officio Head Commissioner of the Issue and the Accountant Generals of Madras and Bombay, ex-officio Commissioners. In 1913 a separate officer called the Controller of the Currency was appointed in charge of the Currency Department.

Under the Act of 1861 currency notes in denomination of Rs. 10, 20, 50, 100, 500 and 1000 were issued against gold and silver coins and bullion at fixed rates. Notes of the denomination of 10,000 were introduced in 1872 but they were used more as a reserve by banks than as a medium of circulation. In 1871 five rupee notes were introduced and in December 1917 one rupee notes and in January 1918 two and a half notes were introduced but were discontinued in January 1926. Earlier in 1910 issues of 20 rupee notes were also discontinued. The notes were printed in England till 1928 and from that date onwards at the Security Press, Nasik in Maharashtra.

To issue notes the country was divided into three distinct circles of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay and notes issued from any one of these circles were not legally encashable outside their respective areas. A circle was thus a self contained currency district. All notes up to rupees 100 were convertible into specie (coins) at all currency offices in India. In 1864 sub-circles were established at Allahabad, Lahore, Calicut, Trichinopoly, Nagpur and Vishakapatnam. Earlier currency notes were considered legal tender only within the circle of origin and were valid for all payments within the circle. In 1903 five rupee notes, in 1910 ten and fifty rupee notes and in 1911 hundred rupee notes were made universal, that is they could be encashable all over India. After 1932 notes of other denominations were also made universal.

Cowry Shells as medium of exchange

Cowry shells are known to have been used as money in India from very earlier times. The Chinese pilgrim Fa-hien who travelled in India about the beginning of the 5^th century A.D. say that the people of Madhya Desha while buying and selling commodities use cowries. During medieval times cowry shells were imported into India from the Maldive islands and 3200 of them were equivalent to one rupee silver coins issued by the Mughals. At some treasuries of the East India Company in Sylhet (east-Bengal), payments in cowries were accepted from farmers as rent. Thomas Bowry, a foreigner who visited a village in eastern Orissa in the latter half of the 17^th century says he found cowry shells to be the only money known to the village folks. In eastern India cowries were used as money by the poor people for a long time after it had ceased to be recognized as money by the British government.

Concluded

Reference

• Mohan Lal Tannan & Khushal T Shah – Indian Currency and Banking Problems, Bombay, 1917
• Shireen Moosvi – Numismatic Evidence and the Economic history of the Delhi Sultanate, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol-50, 1989
• Najaf Haider – International Trade in Precious metals and monetary systems of Medieval India 1200-1500 A.D.,Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol-59, 1998
• J.L.Mehta – Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India,
• Surendra Kishore Chakraborty – Some Hindu elements in Muslim coinage of India, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol-3, 1939
• R.B.Whitehead – Coins of the Mughal Emperors
• B.B.Das Gupta – Paper Currency in India, Calcutta University, 1927
• Kalikaranjan Qanungo – Sher Shah – A Critical study based on original sources, Calcutta, 1921
• A.L.Srivatsava – The Mughal Empire, Shivlal Agarwal & Co, Agra, 1959
• H.Nelson Wright – The Coinage & Metrology of the Sultans of Delhi, Delhi, 1936
• D.C.Sircar – Some facts about the Indian Mint and Money during the late Medieval period, The Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, vol-vii, 1945, Part I and II.
• A.N.Lahiri – Indo-British Coins since 1835,The Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, vol-23 (Golden Jubilee Volume), 1961
• P.L.Gupta – A Survey of Indian Numismatography (Coinage from the decline of the Mughal empire to 1947),The Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, vol-23 (Golden Jubilee Volume), 1961