HISTORY OF FREEDOM MOVEMENT -9

Partition and Independence

The World War II came to an end in 1945. Though Great Britain emerged victorious in the war, it was completely exhausted with immense loss of men and material. It had now to concentrate its energy towards rebuilding its economy and tackle war related problems at home. This apart, the campaign of the I.N.A. and the revolt of the Royal Indian Navy had undermined its hold over the Indian Armed forces. The British also felt that to retain the good will of the Indian people it would be better to leave India gracefully than be kicked out sooner of later. But before that they had to yield to the demand of the Muslim League to partition India and create a separate homeland for Muslims.

Genesis of Pakistan^: P.D.Kaushik in his book, The Congress Ideology and Programme- 1920-47, has cited the causes, which led to the partition of United India. According to the learned scholar, the Indian Muslims always insisted on their separate identity and never regarded themselves as Indian first. To them a Muslim foreigner was a nearer kith and kin than a Hindu neighbour. For instance making a statement at Aligarh in 1924, Mohammed Ali said that however pure Gandhi’s character might be, from his point of view, he considered Gandhi as inferior to any Mussalman even though he be, without character. They were sensitive to the misfortune of their Turkish co-religionists than to the murder of their Hindu brethren at Jallianwallbagh. In fact, the support of the Indian Muslims to the Caliph exposed their extra-territorial loyalty as no Muslims in Asia and Africa gave their support to the Caliph and even the Turks themselves under Kemal Pasha abolished the office of the Caliph in March 1924^.

The justification of Moplah’s revolt (1921) against the Hindus by some Muslims shook Hindu-Muslim unity. Hindus started the Shuddhi (conversion) movement under the leadership of Swami Shraddhananda and a movement for Sangathan (organization) under the leadership of Madan Mohan Malaviya. The Muslims replied with counter-movement of Tabligh (spread of Islam) and Tanzim (organization of Muslims). Referring to the criticism from Muslims to the Shuddhi movement, Dr.Rajendra Prasad observed that as the Christians and Muslims are engaged in proselytizing mission and converting Hindus to their own faith, they had no business to criticize the Hindus for bringing back Hindu converts into their faith. There were regular communal clashes between the Hindus and Muslims for trivial reasons. Hindus considered cow as some sacred and worshiped it as mother and felt offended when the Muslims slaughtered cows during Bakrid. The Muslims used to object the playing of music in front of their mosques by the Hindus while they used to take religious processions. The worst form of communal clash took place at Kohat in North West Frontier Province in September 1924, where large-scale killing and looting took place. This led to the entire Hindu population of the town being evacuated.

Separate homeland for Muslims^: In 1930 presiding over the Allahabad session of Muslim League, Mohammad Iqbal presented his scheme for an autonomous Muslim region in the north-west of India as a solution for the communal problem. But the idea of a separate homeland for Muslims to be called Pakistan took a definite shape in the mind of Rahmat Ali, a young under-graduate at Cambridge. He visualized Punjab, N.W.F.P. (also called Afghan province), Kashmir, Sind and Baluchistan as the national home for the Indian Muslims. The word Pakistan was coined by taking the initials of the first four and the last four letters of the fifth province mentioned. He issued a four page leaflet “Now or Never”. Later he also made a demand that Hyderabad and Bengal should be separated from India. He wrote that the religion, culture, history, tradition, literature and customs of Hindus and Muslims are very distinct from each other.

In 1937, elections were held for the Provincial Legislative Councils under the Government of India Act 1935. While the Congress won 716 seats out of the 1161 seats which it contested, the Muslim League won only 109 out of 482 Muslim seats.

The electoral discomfiture deeply offended the Muslim League President Jinnah’s pride. In the United Province, a stronghold of Muslim League, the Congress Ministry under Govind Ballabh Pant assumed power in July 1937.

Muslim League makes baseless charges^: Chaudhary Khaliquzzaman, who led the Muslim League in United Province was anxious that his party should be associated in the governance of UP and started negotiating with the Congress. The Congress and the Muslim League represented two contradictory ideals. The former stood for democracy, socialism and a common Indian nationality, whereas the latter’s goal was to promote the interest of only the Muslims. Still the Congress agreed to share power with the Muslim League and offered one Cabinet seat. But the Muslim League demanded two Cabinet posts. In the six member Ministry, there were already two Muslims and an addition of another two would have upset the proportion of communal representation and hence the talk broke. Jinnah interpreted this as a calculated move against the Muslim League. He leveled baseless allegations against the Congress Ministries and dubbed the Congress a Hindu organization, out to crush all minorities. In a by-elections to the Muslim seat in Jhansi Jalaun Hamirpur constituency in UP, the Muslim League conducted it electoral campaign with a complete lack of decency. It raised the cry “Allah-O-Akbar” and “Islam in danger” and defeated the Congress.

Pakistan resolution passed: The climax of Muslim communalism was the resolution passed by the Muslim League at its annual session in Lahore on 24 March 1940, wherein the establishment of an independent sovereign Muslim state was adopted. In the 1945 general elections, the Labour Party won a landslide victory and Clement Attlee became the Prime Minister of England. The war wearied Englishmen yearned for peace and wanted to transfer the responsibility of governance of India to the representative of Indian. But the Muslim League insisted that the British divide India before it quit and when the Cabinet Mission plan failed to recommend the creation of Pakistan, Jinnah gave a call to the Muslims to resort to direct action to achieve Pakistan. On 16 August 1946, the League decided to observe a hartal.

Massacre of Hindus: At that time the Premier of Bengal was H.S.Suhrawardy, a Muslim Leaguer who also held the Law and Order portfolio. The police force was largely manned by Muslims and the Hindu officers had been transferred from all key positions. On 16th August, a public holiday was declared and thousands of Muslim thugs were supplied with lethal weapons by the Suhrawardy government. The same afternoon Suhrawardy addressed a huge gathering and carnage followed in Calcutta for four days claiming more than 7000 lives. Some 15,000 were injured. In East Bengal, Ghulam Sarwar, a thug gathered around 1000 armed men and terrorized the Hindus of Noakhali. The Hindus were forced to pay tributes or face forcible conversion or death. Even small children were killed by the mobs and in one place a three year old child was killed and nailed to the door. From Calcutta the communal frenzy spread to UP, Bombay, Punjab, N.W.F.P. and Sind. In March 1947, Mountbatten was sworn in as the new Viceroy of India. He convinced the Congress leaders of the futility of opposing Partition in order to prevent India from bleeding. Thus India attained Independence on August 15, 1947, but its western and eastern territories were separated to form Pakistan.

HISTORY OF FREEDOM MOVEMENT -8

Subash Chandra Bose and the Indian National Army

In his book History of Freedom Movement in India, eminent historian, R.C.Majumdar writes that it was due to the role of Subash Chandra Bose and the activities of the Indian National Army that made the British to leave India. According to him this fact was mentioned by Clement Atlee (the Prime Minister of Britain when India gained Independence) to P.B.Chakravarthi, the ex Chief Justice who was acting as Governor of West Bengal when Atlee visited India and stayed in the Raj Bhavan, Calcutta for two days in 1956.

Born in 1897, Subash Chandra Bose was one of those who believed that the future of India lay with those radical and militant forces that will be able to undergo the sacrifice and suffering necessary for winning freedom. During the Non-Cooperation Movement, he had resigned his post in the Indian Civil Services and joined the freedom movement under the tutelage of C. R.Das. His popularity had earned him the Presidentship of the Congress in 1938. Though Subash Chandra Bose was reelected the next year defeating Pattabhi Sitaramayya, the candidate supported by Gandhiji, his differences with Gandhiji led him to leave the Congress party and form a new party called Forward Bloc in 1939.

The Great Escape: When the Second World War broke out, Bose wanted to secure the aid of Britain’s enemies to fight for India’s independence. But in vain did he try to convince his logic to Gandhiji and other Congress leaders. In March 1939, he convened a gathering of his followers and it was resolved to start a countrywide satyagraha against the war effort in the month of April. Though the movement was not a big affair, Bose was arrested. In November he declared from jail that he would undertake a fast unto death as a protest against his arrest, which he contended was illegal and unwarranted. The fast made Bose very weak and acting on the medical advice that his life was at risk, the government released him in December, however police guards were posted at his house.

Bose spent most of his time in studying scriptures and caused an impression to go round that he had become a recluse. He discussed religion and not politics. One 17^th January 1941, dodging the guards and with the help of his close confidents, Bose slipped out of his house in the disguise of a Muslim divine and reached Kabul. At Kabul, he stayed in a serai posing as a deaf and dumb Pathan on a pilgrimage to Mecca. Bose wanted to go to Moscow, but he was shocked to the lack of Russian response in Kabul to help him. Probably Russia was apprehensive about a German attack and if this happened Britain would become Moscow’s ally and therefore they would not afford to displease London by harbouring a well know anti-British Indian rebel. The Russians even were reluctant to grant a transit visa to Bose even though there was joint request for it from Germany, Italy and Japan. Eventually the Russians granted a transit visa for ‘Orlando Mazzotta’ an Italian diplomatic courier. Bose left Kabul on 18^th March 1941 accompanied by a German engineer, Wenger to Moscow and on 28^th March flew from Moscow to Berlin.

Bose in Germany: Ribbentrop, the right hand man of Hitler, received Bose at Berlin. Bose proposed that 1. He would broadcast anti-British propaganda from Berlin. 2.Raise free India units from Indian prisoners of war in Germany and 3. The three axis powers would jointly make a declaration of India’s independence. The third proposal was not accepted probably due to the fact that in the secret negotiation between Germany and Russia, India was included in the Russian sphere of influence when the British power was to collapse.

When Germany declared war against Russia on 22^nd June 1941, Subash Chandra Bose proposed to raise an Indian legion of three infantry battalions and a company of irregulars, which would form a part of Germany’s fifth column organization. Bose was confident of Germany’s victory and progress of Germany’s army across Russia to central Asia when his own legions accompanying it would invade India. He hoped that the Indian soldiers of the British government would fraternize with them and turn against their own master. Hence he asked for all Indian Prisoners of War in North Africa to be brought to Germany at once. But Indian soldiers showed marked hostility to Bose when he visited their camp and his speech was interrupted. Later he privately interviewed individual prisoners and made a good impression upon them and they joined him. By January 1942 two units were formed and Bose was addressed ‘Netaji’ and greeted with ‘Jai Hind’. Bose also founded ‘Free India Centers’ at Rome and Paris.

Independence League of India: On the day Japan declared war on the Allies (comprising of Britain, America and France), Indians in Tokyo met and formed a committee to work for India’s independence under the leadership of Rash Behari Bose, a revolutionary patriot who had settled in Japan. In Bangkok, Amar Singh, an old revolutionary, who had served a term of 22 years in Indian jails, had formed the Independence League of India in December 1941. The Thai-Bharath Cultural League established by Swamy Satyananda Puri some time ago was converted into Indian National Council. All these bodies decided to carry out their plans in collaboration with the Japanese who had told them that they had no design on India.

In December 1941 when Japan invaded Northern Malaya and defeated a British force, Captain Mohan Singh of the first battalion, 14^th Punjab Regiment and others escaped, but latter surrendered to the Japanese. He was brought back to Bangkok by Giani Pritam Singh, a holy man who along with Major Fuzihara, a Japanese military officer induced Capt. Mohan Singh to work for India’s independence. After the fall of Singapore on 15^th February 1942, Colonel Hunt on behalf of British government handed over 40,000 Indian Prisoner of War to Major Fuzihara who in turn handed them over to Capt. Mohan Singh.

Formation of Indian National Army: Meanwhile the Indian civilian representatives met in Singapore and formed the Indian Independence League. The League decided to raise an Azad Hind Fauj (Indian National Army) and to call a meeting of all Indians in East Asia at Bangkok in June 1942. The Bangkok meeting, presided over by Rash Behari Bose was attended by 110 delegates from all over East Asia. The Tricolour Flag of India was hoisted by Rash Behari Bose and the conference passed 35 resolution including inviting Subash Chandra Bose to East Asia to lead the INA. The meeting decided to organize an army of 1,50,000 under the direct control of the Council of Action of the Indian Independence League. Capt. Mohan Singh, who was elected General Officer in Command of the INA, opened his headquarters at Mount Pleasant in Singapore. About 25,000 Indian POWs joined the INA and also a number of young men without military training, for whom a camp was opened to train them.

Subash Chandra Bose take charge of INA: On 8^th February 1943, Subash Chandra Bose accompanied by Abid Hasan and M.R.Vyas traveled in a German submarine and reached the coast of Madagascar and from there, in the mid sea the three of them were shifted to a Japanese submarine. Bose traveled under the name of Matsuda as a Japanese government V.I.P. and reached Japan in May 1943. There was jubilation among the Indians in East Asia for they had now a leader amongst them. Rash Behari Bose announced at a conference of delegates from different parts of East Asia held at Singapore that Subash Chandra Bose would take over from him the leadership of the Indian movement. In the beginning of July 1943, Subash Chandra Bose went to Singapore where Rash Behari Bose handed over the President ship of the Indian Independence League to him. He proceeded to organize the Provincial Government of Free India as well as the Indian National Army. On 2^nd October 1943, in a broadcast from Bangkok, he said ” When Mahatma Gandhi announced the commencement of the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1920, he (Gandhiji) had said that if India had the sword, she would have drawn the sword, but since armed revolution was out of question the only alternative before the country was that of non-cooperation or Sathyagraha. Since then times have changed and it is now possible for the Indian people to draw the sword. We are happy and proud that India’s army of liberation has already come into existence. The final struggle for liberty will be long and hard and we must go on fighting till the last Britisher is either cast in prison or thrown out of the country”.

The I.N.A. campaign: On October 21, 1943, Subash Chandra Bose formed the Provincial Government of Free India and assumed the command of the Indian National Army and gave a call ‘Chalo Delhi’. Within a few days nine countries including Japan, Germany, Italy, Burma, Thailand and Nationalist China accorded their recognition to the provincial government of free India. The I.N.A. Brigade assisted by the Japanese army, advanced up to the Indian border. In March 1944, the Indian flag was hoisted in Kohima. But with the change of fortunes in the war, the launching of a counter-offensive by the British in the winter of 1944 and the final defeat of Japan, the I.N.A. movement collapsed. On 18-8-1945, Subash Chandra Bose died in an air crash at Taipei. The surrendered I.N.A. men were tried for treason in the Red Fort at Delhi. The Congress took up their cause and set up a panel of lawyers including Jawaharlal Nehru and Bhulabhai Desai to defend them in their trial. With public sympathy overwhelmingly towards them, the British were forced to set them free. The intense patriotism of Bose and the heroism and idealism of the Indian National Army inspired the people in an unprecedented manner. The I.N.A. campaign followed by the revolt of the Ratings of the Royal Indian Navy in February 1946 in fact made the British to think twice on continuing their rule over India.

HISTORY OF FREEDOM MOVEMENT -7

The Congress Ministry’s at Work

After the Act of 1935 was given Royal assent on August 4^th 1935, the government announced that the above Act would come into force on April 1^st, 1937. Though all the political parties in India including the Congress had expressed their dissatisfaction over the Act, they decided to take part in the elections to fill the provincial legislatures. In its election manifesto, the Congress rejected the constitution of the 1935 and wanted its replacement by a constitution framed by a constituent assembly elected by the people. It declared that the Congress legislators aim would be to end the acts, ordinances and regulations that oppressed the people, to establish civil liberty, to release political prisoners and to repair the wrongs done to the peasantry.

When the results were announced, the Congress won 711 seats out of 808 general seats in the provinces and secured majority in Madras, Bihar, Central Province, United Province and Orissa province. Later it was also able to form government in Bombay, N.W.F.P. and Assam. Congress leaders like C.Rajagopalachari, Govind Ballabh Pant, Dr.Khan Saheb and B.G.Kher assumed charge as Chief Ministers in Madras, United Province, N.W.F.P. and Bombay respectively.

Pro-People Measures:

The Congress ruled provinces adopted pro-people measures like releasing political prisoners and repealing many repressive laws. Ban on many books were removed and securities of many newspapers returned. In 1938 the Congress government in Bombay restored to their original owners all lands that were confiscated by the previous government as penalty for participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement.

As to agrarian reforms, laws providing greater security of tenure to the peasants, reduction of rents, debt relief and abolition of a number of abuses and vexations restrictions on tenants were passed almost in all the Congress ruled provinces. Similarly Harijans were given special educational facilities and laws were framed legalizing the opening of temples to them. Harijans were appointed as Ministers and Parliamentary Secretaries in several Congress ruled provinces. Khadi was encouraged, Prohibition attempted and measures were taken to improve the condition of women.

For the first time the Anglo-Indian bureaucracy had to work under the erstwhile rebels (Congress) and the two and quarter years of office gave Congressmen a training into the work of public administration which proved invaluable in post-independence era. Moreover the sight of their national leaders occupying Ministerial chair and giving orders to I.C.S. officers created a new self confidence and a new vitality among the masses and convinced them that the dawn of Swaraj was not far away.

The Mysore Congress:

Though a separate Congress committee had been established for Karnataka way back in 1920, on a mistaken notion that it was a party of Brahmins, there was hesitation on the part of many nationalist minded non-Brahmins to join the party. But leaders like Veeranagowd Patil, Siddappa Hosamani and G.V.Hallikeri roused the youth to join the ranks of the Congress. In the Non-Brahmin Conference held at Belgaum in May 1930, Siddappa Hosamani in his presidential speech extorted non-Brahmins to join the Congress and said that in independent India the interests and rights of all communities will be attended to, far better than the British government. In princely Mysore, the Praja Samyukta Paksha, a party consisting mostly of non-Brahmins merged with the Congress and called itself Mysore Congress. Some of the important leaders of this party were K.C.Reddy, K.T.Bhashyam, T.Subramanya, H.C.Dasappa, B.N.Gupta, H.K.Veeranna Gowda, K.Hanumanthayya, M.N.Jois, K.C.Reddy, S.Nijalingappa, Sahukar Channayya, etc. The first session of the Mysore Congress was held at Shivapura near Maddur in April 1938 under the Presidentship of T.Siddalingayya. The Congress gave a call to launch Flag Sathyagraha and hundreds of people courted arrest by unfurling the tri-colour all over the state.

The Vidhurashwatha Tragedy:

When the Congress decided to hold a Flag Sathyagraha at Vidhurashwatha in Kolar district, the District Magistrate there, issued a order banning the hoisting of the Flag and prohibited holding of meeting and making speeches. In spite of the prohibitory orders a large number of people gathered on 25^th of April and when asked to disperse the people refused. This resulted in police firing in which the Congress alleged 32 deaths while the official version was between ten to twelve casualties. To study the situation Congress leaders, Vallabhbhai Patel and J.B.Kripalani came to the state and after several consultations with the state Congress leaders and interviews with the Diwan, Mirza Ismail, a compromise formula was evolved by which the state government recognized the Mysore Congress and agreed to withdraw all repressive orders and grant general amnesty to political prisoners. The Mysore Congress on its part called off the Sathyagraha. The Flag dispute was settled on the lines suggested by Gandhiji by which it was decided to hoist the Congress Flag along with the State Flag on all ceremonial occasions and at purely party functions, only the tri-colour flag to be flown.

The Quit India Movement:

In September the Second World War broke out and in November 1939, the Congress ministries resigned as a protest against the British Indian government involving India in the war without the consent of its people. The Congress had earlier demanded the government to clarify its war aims and spell out its proposal for India’s future. On October 8^th 1939, the Viceroy Linlithgow announced that the government would expand the Executive Council, establish War Council to advise the government and set up a body to devise the framework of a constitution immediately on the termination of the war. But the offer was unacceptable to the Congress, which launched the Individual Sathyagraha in October 1940.

The rapid advancement of Japan in the eastern front and pressure from U.S.A. and China upon Britain to work out a political settlement with the Indians led the British government to sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India in March 1942. But his mission failed to bring out a settlement and left a legacy of widespread frustration, disappointment and resentment. It convinced the Congress leaders that the British government was in no case ready to part with power. Consequently they refused to ‘rely on mere promises about the future’. They argued among themselves that if the British were not prepared to part with power even in their hour of need and peril, how could they be expected to do so after the war when their position would be much stronger. Under these circumstances Gandhiji hit upon the idea of ‘orderly and timely withdrawal of the British from India’. British withdrawal from Malaya and Burma on the wake of the Japanese advancement had destroyed his faith in British capacity to defend India. “Don’t leave India to Japan”, Gandhiji said and added ” Leave India to Indians in an orderly manner”. He also made it clear that by British withdrawal he meant “no complete withdrawal, but only the transfer of political power from the British to the Indian people.

On 8^th August 1942, the All-India Congress Committee met at Bombay and passed a resolution asking the British to quit India. The action of the government was shift. On the eve hours of Sunday August 9^th, Gandhiji was arrested followed by all the members of the Congress Working Committee. The banning of all Congress Committees and jailing of almost all Congressmen of importance surprised and shocked people all over India. These measures naturally provoked an immediate reaction. Demonstrations, processions, picketing and acts of disobedience and defiance followed all over the country. While the masses turned their wrath against the government by destructing public and government property, the government retaliated severely with the aid of police and the army. Mobs were dispersed with batons, by firing and occasionally with machine gun from air. People were mercilessly flogged and beaten, under trials were tortured-not allowed to sleep, kept hungry and thirsty, women were stripped, assaulted and raped. In villages numerous houses were razed to the ground and burnt. People were tied to trees and whipped and large numbers of them were sent to jail without trial. According to the statistics compiled by the Home Department, more than a thousand people were killed due to firing, more than 60,000 were arrested and a sum of Rs.90,07,382 was imposed as collective fines. The loss to the government due to the destruction of its property mainly government buildings, railway stations, post offices, police stations was estimated around Rs. 27,35,125.

Quit India Movement in Karnataka:

Soon after the launching of the Quit India movement by Gandhiji, an action committee with C.J.Ambali as president and R.R.Diwakar as secretary was appointed by the Karnataka Pradesh Congress Committee to carry out the agitation in Karnataka. In Belgaum and Dharwad districts, a number of village offices were burnt including revenue records. Telegraph wires were cut, railway lines removed and railway stations and government offices were damaged. European military had to be deployed in Belgaum and Dharwad districts to suppress the movement. In old Mysore, labourers at Bangalore, Bhadhravathi, K.G.F., Davangere and other places went on strike in protest against the arrest of Gandhiji and other leaders. Students too participated by boycotting their classes. Government timber depots, sub-registrar’s office, railway station, post-office and police station were set on fire at many places. At least 15,000 people were jailed in Karnataka in 1942-43 and more than 30 died due to police firing.

Martyrdom of Mylara Mahadevappa:

Mylara Mahadevappa, the patriot who had accompanied Gandhiji in his famous Dandi March organized a group of youths and commenced a sort of guerilla warfare against the government. Day and night, without rest or proper food, these patriots roamed the country, raiding government offices and burning records, capturing government mails and seizing government money in transit. Finding the local police ineffective in dealing with them, the government brought a posse of policemen from Maharashtra to Haveri taluk and announced a reward of Rs.300 to anyone who would capture or help in the capture of Mahadevappa. But on 31^st March 1943, Mahadevappa lost his life in an attempt to seize a box containing government money at Hosaritti in Haveri taluk. In all Mahadevappa and his men had successfully carried out seventy-four exploits, but in no instance was harm done to a single individual.

Isur declares itself free:

The nationalist feelings of the Quit-India movement had its impact even in Isur, a remote village in Shikaripura taluk of Shimoga district. On September 25^th when the revenue officials went to the village to collect land revenue, boys and girls shouting patriotic slogans mobbed them and seized their record books. The following day the village declared itself independent and established a parallel government. A ten- year old boy, Jayappa was appointed as the Amildar and Mallappa, a twelve-year old boy was appointed as the Dictator. A new law was declared by which everyone had a wear a khadi cap. On September 28^th the government Amildar and his men entered the village and were surrounded by the people of the village and asked them to wear khadi caps. This enraged the police officer accompanying the Amildar and ordered the policemen to control the mob. Lathi charge was followed by firing and the mob become violent. Among the casualties were the Amildar and the police officer. Soon after the incident, the men folks of the village fled their homes fearing retaliation by the police, which turned out to be true. The Mysore police and military forces descended upon the village a let a reign of terror. Innocent were tortured, women molested and houses looted. Charges were filed against many and about five patriots, Gurappa, Mallappa, Suryanarayanachari, Halappa and Sankarappa were hanged in March 1943.

 

 

 

 

HISTORY OF FREEDOM MOVEMENT-6

The Civil-Disobedience Movement

The rejection of the government to the demand made by the Congressmen to accord Dominion Status led Gandhiji in January 1930 to ask the Viceroy concede his eleven points which included introduction of total prohibition, reduction of military expenditure, discharge of political prisoners and abolition of salt tax. It was decided to take a pledge on January 26th, which declared thus- “We hold it to be a crime against man and god to submit any longer to a rule that has caused this fourfold disaster (economic, political, cultural and spiritual) to out country. We recognize however that the most effective way of gaining our freedom is not through violence. We will therefore prepare ourselves by withdrawing so far as we can all voluntary association from the British government and will prepare for civil disobedience including non-payment of taxes… We therefore hereby solemnly resolve to carry out the Congress instructions issued from time to time for the purpose of establishing Purna Swaraj“. Gandhiji decided to inaugurate the civil disobedience movement by breaking the salt laws so as to have a mass appeal.

The genesis of Salt laws:

Generally exports from India had been always greater than her imports from England. The exported items consisted of raw material and food products, which were voluminous. As ships from England used to be half empty, mud was used as keel ballast and the Chowringhee Road in Calcutta, which was once a canal was filled with the mud, brought in that manner. Later old newspaper, porcelain chips and salt served as keel ballast. To dispose of the imported salt, the British government levied tax on salt manufactured in India. Since salt is an indispensable ingredient of food, by breaking the salt law, Gandhiji believed he would be able to demonstrate even to the poorest Indian that the civil disobedience movement had been started with a view to help him.

The Dandi March:

On 11th March 1930, Gandhiji left for Dandi, a small village on the Gujrat seacoast along with 78 volunteers on a 241-mile trek. Mylara Mahadevappa representing Karnataka was one of the volunteer who accompanied Gandhi in his historic march. On his way Gandhiji passed through villages, where he told his audience to make salt freely and sell it from place to place. The aim was that the salt in government stocks should become superfluous. Gandhiji reached Dandi on 5th and broke the salt laws on 6th April 1930 at 8.30 a.m. by picking up a lump of salt on the seashore. A wave of enthusiasm swept the whole country. Salt laws were broken in many places and even women belonging to aristocratic families joined the movement. Gandhiji was arrested on 5th May 1930 before he could organize a raid on the government Salt Depot at Dharsana (Surat district). His place was taken by Sarojini Naidu, who along with 2000 volunteers reached Dharsana on 21st May.

An American correspondent, Webb Miller of New York Telegram, who witnessed the raid of the Salt Depot at Dharsana recorded that he was perplexed and baffled by the sight of men advancing coldly and deliberately and submitting to beating without defence. Sometimes the scenes were so painful that he had to turn away momentarily. In the Dharsana raid more than 300 volunteers were injured and two died. William Shirer of Chicago Times has borne testimony of police beatings on peaceful demonstrators in places like Bombay, Delhi, Calcutta and Lahore. Hundreds of men and women were killed as a result of police firing on demonstrators organized throughout India against Gandhiji’s arrest. The Platoons of Garhwal Rifles disobeyed the order to shoot on demonstrators and were court-martialled. Gandhiji’s arrest attracted worldwide attention. Expatriate Indians in Panama and Nairobi declared a strike. The Indian community in Sumatra wired to the Viceroy regretting Gandhiji’s arrest. French newspapers were full of reports on Gandhiji and his activities. About 102 American clergymen cabled British Prime Minister, Ramsay Macdonald and urged him to seek an amicable settlement with and Gandhiji and the Indian people.

Effects of Civil Disobedience:

Apart from violating salt laws, picketing of liquor shops, boycott of British goods and propagation of Swadeshi was carried on vigorously. The effects of civil disobedience were considerable. About a hundred thousand persons were jailed and general imports were reduced to one-third or one-fourth and cigarettes to one-sixth of the normal. Foreign goods worth thirty crore rupees were sealed in the port city of Bombay. So also about 16 British-owned clothe mills. Khadi production and sale went up and the Spinners Association employed about 1,40,000 spinners, 11,500 weavers and 1000 carders.

Salt Sathyagraha in Karnataka:

On 23rd February 1930, a meeting of the Karnataka Provincial Congress Committee presided by R.R.Diwakar was held at Bellary and a Sathyagraha Committee was formed. The Congress leaders of Karnataka undertook tours to explain to the people the objectives and methods of the Congress. These leaders submitted the report of their work to the Provincial Congress Committee, which met in Dharwad on 16th March 1930. These leaders opined that North Kanara district was the suitable place for launching the civil disobedience movement in Karnataka and the villages and the towns on the coast were suited for the Salt Sathyagraha.

Karnataka decided to start the Salt Sathyagraha on 13th April the day on which the infamous Jallianwallabagh massacre had taken place and Ankola was fixed the place of venue wherein volunteers from all parts of the state were to participate. Earlier in Belguam when Gandhiji broke the Salt laws on 6th, Gangadharrao Deshpande auctioned contraband salt and Narayanarao Joshi, Jeevanarao Yalagi and Anantha Dabade brought it. All these four were arrested the next day and hartals, protests and processions followed their arrest in many parts of Karnataka.

On 13th April, in the presence of about 40,000 people M.P.Nadakarni broke the salt law in Ankola. Revu Honnappa Naik brought the first packet of salt auctioned for 30 rupees. After the auction Swami Vidyananda addressed the gathering in which leaders like, Karnad Sadashiva Rao, Smt Umabai Kundapur, Dr Hardikar, T.S.Naik and others participated. The police promptly arrested the leaders but the Sathyagraha continued for 45 days with full tempo. Salt Sathyagraha was offered in nearly 30 centres like Mangalore,Kundapur, Udupi, Puttur, Padubidre, etc in Karnataka. Students came out in large numbers to prepare salt and sell it from house to house. When Gandhiji decided to raid the salt depot at Dharsana, a similar raid was undertaken in Karnataka at Sanikatte. A group of volunteers led by Sridhar Panduranga Balaji collected a few maunds of salt and carried it to Kumta, where the whole stock was sold in 15 minutes.

Forest Sathyagraha and agitation against the production and sale of liquors followed the Salt Sathyagraha. People broke the regulation regarding reserved forests and brought firewood or fodder and courted arrest. Picketing of liquor shops, cutting down of toddy trees and picketing the auction of toddy depots were also resorted too. It was common to see the picketers being beaten by police and also by those who were prevented from drinking. In the boycott of foreign cloth, women took a prominent part and went from house to house to gather foreign cloth and held bonfires in every village and at the same time spread the message of Charka. Four taluks in Karnataka namely Hirekerur in Dharwad district and Ankola, Sirsi and Siddapura in North Kanara district were selected for organizing the no-tax campaign. Despite repressive measures by the authorities, the campaign was a huge success. More than 1500 activists were arrested in Karnataka for participating in the Civil-Disobedience Movement during 1930-31.

The Round Table Conference:

The Simon Commission published its report on 7th June 1930. It deliberately omitted any mention of Dominion Status even as the distant goal of India’s political progress. The proposals of the Commission were unacceptable to the Congress and other political parties including the Muslim League. To discuss the report the British government decided to call an all-party conference. With all its leaders in prison the Congress decided to boycott the conference. On November 12, 1930, King George V inaugurated the first Round Table Conference attended by representatives of various Indian parties, Princely States and the British Parliament. The insistence of the Muslim delegates for the continuation of separate electorates, the demand for such provision by other communal groups and lack of consensus on various issues led to the Conference to come to an inconclusive end.

In January 1931, Gandhiji and other Congress leaders were released from prison. On 5th March, Gandhiji and Irwin signed an agreement by which Congress decided to discontinue the Civil Disobedience Movement and take part in the 2nd Round Table Conference. The government on its part agreed to release arrested Congress activists, not charged with violence from prison and return immovable property seized for non-payment of tax, if not sold to a third party. Gandhiji took part in the 2nd Round Table Conference at London, which began on September 7th 1931. At the conference Gandhiji insisted upon the immediate grant of independence and claimed that the Congress represented all India, irrespective of caste, creed, race or interest. But the conference did not make any progress and Gandhiji had to return back to Bombay on 28th December 1931, disappointed and sullen. During Gandhiji’s absence from India, the government not only violated the terms of the Gandhi-Irwin pact, but also set loose a reign of terror by enacting a number of repressive ordinances. The Congress Working Committee passed a resolution on January 1st 1932 in which it urged the government to change its policy towards the Congress failing which it would be forced to resume the Civil Disobedience Movement, including non-payment of taxes. The government replied by arresting Gandhiji and other Congress leaders.

No-Tax Campaign in Karnataka:

The arrest of Gandhiji and other Congress leaders saw the resumption of the no-tax campaign in North Kanara district of Karnataka. The people of Ankola and Siddapura not only refused to pay the land tax but also allowed their movable and immovable properties to be seized. When auctioned the goods had no bidders and even if some ‘loyalists’ did buy such goods, women volunteers launched hunger strike in front of their houses. These women volunteers had to face ridicule and abuses and hooligans along with police committing atrocities of the worst kind on them. But these women persisted in their strike and broke fast only when the buyers returned the auctioned goods to their original owners. As all grown-ups in many families had been arrested for non-payment of land revenue, their houses were locked and their children had to take refuge in Balakashramas or shelter homes for children. When released from jail many activists found their houses in a dilapidated condition either due to police excess (the police had dug up inside houses in the hope of obtaining valuables buried) or due to weather conditions. Thus the sacrifice of the people of Ankola and Siddapura in the no-tax campaign was immense. In February 1934, Gandhiji toured places like Sirsi, Siddapura, Ankola and Karwar. To the people of these taluks, who had undergone unbearable suffering and offered their as sacrifice in answer to his call of civil disobedience, the physical presence of Gandhiji was the cause of supreme joy and unbounded enthusiasm. In the meanwhile Gandhiji began to undertake the anti-untouchability campaign in a serious way and hence on 7^th April 1934, he announced the final suspension of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

HISTORY OF FREEDOM MOVEMENT-5

Gandhiji and the Belgaum Congress session

On February 5th 1924, Gandhiji was released from prison following an operation for appendicitis. The Hindu-Muslim cooperation for which he had striven so zealously had nearly vanished. With the abolition of Khilafat in Turkey, no inducement was left for majority of the Indian Muslims to cooperate with the Hindus. The Muslim League eclipsed during the Khilafat agitation found a breathing space once again. Thus with the passage of time the discord between the Hindus and the Muslims began to appear and communal riots occurred at regular intervals. To expiate for the sins of his erring countrymen, Gandhiji undertook a fast of 21 days from September 18 to October 8. This was his desperate effort to solve the communal tangle. The Council entry programme of the Swarajists was not to the liking of Gandhiji. But the circumstances as they were, it was impossible for anybody to bring back the masses to an active non-cooperation and therefore as sort of compromise was reached. The Congressmen were given freedom to decide for themselves either to work for the Council entry or to carry on the constructive work outside the Council. It was in this background that Gandhiji presided over the Belgaum session in December 1924 with the objective of restoring unity between Congressmen who were for Council entry and those against it and between Hindus and Muslims. Removal of untouchability and spread of Chakra and Khadi were the other objectives.

A Historic session: The Belgaum Congress session was a momentous event and the enthusiasm of the Kannadigas knew no bounds, as it was the only Congress session in which Gandhiji presided. The venue where the session was held, named Vijayanagara and the entrance gate was designed like the Gopura of the Virupaksha temple at Hampi. The huts for visitors and the delegates were built with Khadi and had bamboo roofs. For the supply of water round the clock a tank, Pampa Sarovara was constructed. To feed the participants, a huge kitchen was set up and thousands of lanterns and petromax light were brought from Bombay for lighting purpose. Volunteers of Hindustan Seva Dal, trained by N.S.Hardikar were looking after the arrangements and attending the comforts of the visitors.

When Gandhiji along with the Ali brothers, Sarojini Naidu, Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and a host of leaders arrived at Belgaum, they were welcomed by a mammoth crowd led by Gangadharrao Deshpande, the Chairman of the Reception Committee. Gandhiji was taken in a procession to the Congress camp. All efforts were made to represent the culture and history of Karnataka at the session. Great stalwarts of music like Veene Seshanna gave their recital and Huyilagola Narayana Rao sung the Kannada anthem ‘Udayavagali namma cheluva Kannadanadu‘ at the session. In his presidential address Gandhiji spoke on the necessity of Hindu-Muslim unity, boycott of foreign goods, encouraging spinning and weaving of Khadi, working towards eradication of untouchability and other issues. A number of session were also held at Belgaum on the occasion like the All-India Khilafat Conference, All-India Hindu Mahasabha Conference, All-India Non-Brahmin Conference, All-India Social Conference and also the first Karnataka Unification Conference, presided by Sir Siddappa Kambli.

Karnataka responded positively to the call given by Gandhiji for constructive programmes. The spread of Khadi and village industries was taken up all over Karnataka and organizations for Harijan welfare were set up in many places of the state. Between 1922 and 1925 national leaders like C.Rajagopalachari, C.R.Das, Lala Lajpat Rai, S.Srinivasa Iyengar, Pattabhi Seetharamiah, Jamnadas Mehta, Konda Venkatappiah and others toured all over Karnataka and kept the national spirit alive. The flame of freedom struggle was also kept alive by a host of Congressmen of Karnataka like N.S.Hardikar, Srinivas Rao Kaujalgi, Gangadharrao Deshpande, Kadapa Raghavendra Rao, R.R.Diwakar, Krishna Rao Mudvedkar and others. The authorities in Princely state of Mysore understood the value of spinning and weaving Khadi in the scheme of rural development and often cooperated with the Congress workers in the extension of Khadi industries and other village industries sponsored by the Congress. The Diwan of Mysore, Albion Banerjee not only permitted the Department of Industries to send exhibits to the Congress exhibition at Belgaum in 1924, but also gave a donation for the expenses.

Anti-Simon Commission agitation: For the purpose of enquiring into the working of the system of Government and the development of representative institutions in India, with a view to extend, modify or restrict the degree of responsible Government then existing in India, a statutory commission was appointed by the Government in 1927. The Commission headed by John Simon had no Indian representatives. The Commission was appointed two year earlier than the prescribed date as the ruling Conservative Party in Britain was doubtful of its victory in the next general elections and did not wanted the Labour Party, which was somewhat sympathetic to Indian aspirations should get a chance to determine the composition of the Commission.

Congressmen felt insulted by the exclusion of Indians from the Commission and the arrival of the Commission was greeted with hartal and there was wide spread demonstrations all over India. When the members of the Commission arrived at Bombay on 3rd February 1928, K.F.Nariman led the demonstration who held placard inscribed “Swaraj is our birthright” and “No representation, no Commission”. Lucknow experienced unprovoked police charges on an unarmed and peaceful protest on the occasion of the visit of the Commission. Police entered houses and beat respected people for daring to call “Simon go back”. During a party given by some Taluqdars to the members of the Commission in Lucknow, the police had barricaded the place. Still, the harmony of the party was marred by the arrival from the skies of numerous black kites and balloons bearing “Simon, go back”, “India for Indians”, etc. In Patna, a gathering of 50,000 people demonstrated against the Commission, while only a few Chaprasis and government servants gave it a welcome. Lorries of hired people, whom the government had brought from the neighbourhood, walked into the boycott camp and not the welcome camp.

Lala Lajpat Rai bereaved: At Lahore, when Lajpat Rai and others led the protest against the Commission on 30th October 1928, the police used force on the perfectly non- violent demonstration and Lajpat Rai who was in the first row received lathi blows over his chest, which proved fatal. He died on 17th November. To avenge his death, Bhagat Singh and his associates decided to assassinate J.A.Scott, the police officer under whose order the police had resorted to lathi-charge. But due to mistaken identity, instead of Scott, a probationary officer, J.P.Saunders became the victim.

In reply to the Indians protest against the non inclusive of Indians in the Simon Commission, the Secretary of State for India, Birkenhead said that the Indians had been excluded from the Commission due to their divided opinion and if they could overcome their differences and frame a draft reform proposal, due consideration would be given during the preparation of the official reform scheme.

The Nehru report: The challenge was accepted by the Congress, which constituted a committee under the president ship of Motilal Nehru. The result was a draft report, which recommended Dominion Status as the basis for the new Constitution. But as there was no provision for separate electorates, the Muslims refused to adhere to the report. Even Jawaharlal Nehru condemned the report as a timid ideal and only after a long discussion with Gandhiji accepted a compromise formula, by which Dominion Status was accepted as the basis of the new Constitution, provided the British government conceded it before the end of 1929. The failure of the government to accept the recommendations made in the Nehru report led the Congress in its session at Lahore in 1930 to declare its commitment towards realization of Swaraj. On 31st December 1929, Jawaharlal Nehru unfurled the national flag on the banks of river Ravi and the working committee of the Congress, which met on 2nd January 1930, decided to observe the 26th of January as Independence or Poorna Swaraj Day. Various towns of Karnataka observed the Independence Day with appropriate solemnity and discipline.